
Fruit c Tmqi Shippers 






W'MmwSsm^m^^i 



\M TMi:> 



^-S^w*?^ 




Class ^^^li^ 
Rnok Tl^L 
()opyi1^ht)^° 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




""^^^^yC^ --^5^-*^^^_. 



^^7^ 




^^ 



^^ 




^^^2^ 



rr 



THE MODEKN GUIDE 



FOR 



FRUIT AND TRUCK SHIPPERS 



AND 



POULTRY RAISERS 



IN THE 



SOUTHERN STATES 



A FULL AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON 

DIVERSIFIED FARMING, FRUIT, TRUCK GROWING, POULTRY RAISING 
AND EGG PRODUCTION FOR MARKET AND PROFIT 



Copyright, 1907, by Theodore G. Thomas (Author) and Pubh'shed by the 

Thomas-Willson Pubhshing Company, 900 Main Street, 

Houston, Texas. 



Price per Copy, Cloth Bound and Illustrated, $2.00, or $2.50 Including 
One Year's Subscription to the Weekly Southern Shippers' Guide. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



PAKT I. 



FRUIT AND TRUCK GARDENS 
IN THE SOUTH. 



The wonderful increase in the past decade of fruit, truck and poultry 
shipments from the South to the Northern, Eastern and Western markets 
is due to several causes: The splendid climate and soil of the Southern 
States, adapted to fruit and truck culture, the earliness of the Southern 
products, the magnificent railway systems to these markets, the eager de- 
mand by the Northern consumers — all contribute to the impetus of the in- 
dustry. Formerly the Northern citizen, during the period when his fields 
and gardens were snow-covered and ice-bound, contented himself with pre- 
served fruits, vegetables, stored in cellars, and canned goods. He erected 
greenhouses, where with artificial heat he could produce such delicacies 
in the fruit and vegetable line denied to him by his frigid temperature. 
But artificial heat, with a constantly increasing price of coal and other 
fuels, is expensive; the product of the greenhouses must be sold at high 
prices or else grown at a loss, therefore only the wealthy class can enjoy 
what is out of reach to the middle and poorer classes and here is the South's 
opportunity. With the congenial, warm climate, bright sunshine, protec- 
tion by timber from the cold North winds, fanned by the warm breeze? 
from the Gulf stream, the Southern grower is enabled to produce both 
fruits and vegetables in midwinter as cheaply as further north in the sum- 
mer time. In our travels through the entire North this last winter, there 
was not a single day that we did not observe in the large city markets, to- 
matoes, egg plant, beans, cucumbers, squash, celery, okra, parsley, peas, po- 
tatoes, spinach, beets, cauliflower, lettuce, onions, peppers, radishes, straw- 
berries, oranges, grape fruit, all from some point in the Southern States, 
all in eager demand and selling at satisfactory prices. While the growing 
of fruits and truck in the South is a pleasant, remunerative employment, 
ofttimes resulting in almost fabulous profits, to succeed, the business, 
like any other, must be thoroughly understood in all its details. A fruit 
or truck grower must be either a fairly educated man or seek and absorb 
such knowledge held out to him by books and agricultural works published 
on the subject. Ignorance is an impediment from the seed to market. 
Mistakes are easily made and experience ofttimes a costly harvest. 



8 Selection of a Locality for a Fruit and Vegetable Garden. 

There are many features connected with the successful growing and 
shipping of all fruits and truck, and to eliminate any of these means loss 
and disappointment. 

Selection of proper localities for fruit or vegetable farms, soils^ fertil- 
izers; how plants grow; seeds, what varieties succeed best; sowing, plant- 
ing, cultivation; how to combat and destroy insects; to prevent or cure 
rust or blight; irrigation and drainage; rotation of crops for better re- 
sults; forcing plants in the greenhouse or hotbed; how to harvest, pick^ 
select, pack and ship; transportation facilities; favorable markets — all are 
items which must be studied closely to insure success, and it is for this 
purpose and enlightenment this work is being published, as all questions 
will !)0 answered and every contingency provided for in the minutest 
details. 



SELECTION OF LOCALITY EOE A FEUIT AND VEGETABLE 

GAEDEN. 

A fruit or truck farm should never be far from the loading station or 
the raiiToads; in no case over three miles. JJong hauls on rough and bad 
roads are not conducive to profits and decidedly injurious to the keeping 
qualities of the products. Spring wagons should invariably be used to 
haul highly perishable goods to depots. It is also a decided advantage to 
locate near where there are several railroads and express offices ; besides 
the competition, it provides more daily trains to ship on and oflEers more 
direct markets to ship to. 

Many of the large commercial orchards, melon and potato fields have 
special private spurs where cars are set for loading. This, of course, is 
a self-evident advantage. The land for fruit and truck gardens should be 
subject to thorough drainage, neither too rolling nor level. Land subject to 
washing by heavy rains should be avoided, as it causes loss of crops and 
fertilizers. Location of land protected from the north and west winds by 
timber or other obstruction is preferable, as the soil warms quicker in the 
spring and insures an earlier crop. For the same reason a crop planted on 
the south side of a lake, bay or large stream will be earlier and often escape 
injuries from late or early frosts, when crops on the north side will be 
killed. This is explained by the fact that the cold north winds passing 
over the warm water the lower strata will convey the warmth and moisture 
to the crop and protect it rather than destroy it. Low ground is more 
subject to frosts than high ground. 



SELECTION OF SOILS. 

While fruit trees, nut bearing trees, berries and grapes readily thrive 
in the hilly, rocky, gravely, heavy, stiff clay soil, all garden truck with- 
out any exception, thrives best in a loose, mellow, sandy loam, brought to a 
high state of cultivation by frequent plowing, and even subsoiling the land 
is of unquestionably great benefit. 

The dilference in soils is marked to such a degree that often complete 
failures are made from want of knowledge of what soil may produce either 
fruit's or vegetables in their perfection. As an example, many root crops, 
such as potatoes, radishes, beets and others, are deformed, tasteless and un- 
marlcetable because they were grown in the wrong soil indigenous to their 
nature, when top crops, like beans, peas, tomatoes and lettuce, might have 
made heavy and excellent crops on the very same land. 

To a certain kind of soil and climate every kind of agricultural and 
horticultural product is especially adapted; and each of such products is 
to certain other kinds of soil and climate to a similar extent unadapted, 
such f:tness increasing or decreasing in many cases through numerous 
varieties of soils and climes from the latter to the former. In conse- 
queneu of lack of knowledge with reference to the suitability or non- 
suitable of certain plants for certain soils, thousands of dollars are an- 
nually lost to the gardeners of the Southern States. So many instances 
of failure and success afford unquestionable proof of the truth of these 
assertions that verification by specific reference is unnecessary. On the 
planting of seed, the rearing of crops, in accordance with scientific rules 
and principles, depend the degree of success which the agriculturalist 
or gardener is destined to achieve. 

In describing the growing of fruits and vegetables in the South in 
this work, particular stress will be laid on the selection of the proper soil 
for every fruit and every vegetable in Parts II and III, to enable our 
readers to select the proper soil for success and avoid failures so often 
experienced with the wrong kind of soil. 



FEETILIZERS. 



It is not our intention to bore our readers in this article on fertilizers 
to any length, because in our description on "How To Grow Fruits and 
Vegetables" in Parts II and III of this book, we will give complete direc- 
tions what fertilizers are required for each product and in what quantities 
to attain satisfactory results. We also give a complete description and 



10 Sdoction of Soils. 

use of fertilizers for the orchard and garden, how to make home-made 
fertilizers and how to use commercial fertilizers in Part IV of this work. 
As we stated in the preceding article on soils, that there are many dif- 
ferenr. kinds of soils and each soil has its productive qualities to produce 
a certain kind of product, so is there many different kinds of fertilizers, 
producing precisely the same result for different crops. For instance. 
we require fruit on trees, tomatoes on the tomato vine and potatoes on the 
potato roots. There are specific manures that bring about these results. 
We require foliage in lettuce, cabbage, spinach, celery and other foliage 
plants, such as grass and forage crops; there are certain manures that 
bring about this result also. To use, then, the opposite manure means op- 
posite results. All these are important features, and chemistry to a cer- 
tain extent must be studied by the farmer and more especially by the 
truck grower. 

The three foundation principles of all manure, stable manure, night 
soil, decayed matter of all kinds, are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 
All other manures, such as lime, green manure from leguminous plants, are 
valuable only to the extent that they contain all three of the above ingredi- 
ents or any portion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. All fruits 
and bulb vegetables contain more potash than any other ingredient. It 
follows, then, that we must use fertilizers where potash predominates. 
In foliage plants nitrogen and phosphoric acid are more essential than 
potash. Nitrate of soda, containing from 15 to 16 per cent, nitrogen, is 
also a valuable agent to produce foliage plants, and even light fruits, 
such as the tomato and strawberry. Stable manure contains all the ele- 
ments of fertilization and could enough be obtained to satisfy the demand 
there would be no need of studying chemistry or looking in any other 
direction for other fertilizers, but the supply is limited and we are forced 
to balance the account by using a combination of ingredients contained 
in the stable manure commonly known as commercial fertilizers. In our 
experience for twenty-five years in the Southern gardens we have con- 
tinually noted that nearly all truck growers especially, do not manure 
sufficiently, practicing economy where economy actually amounts to a loss. 
Indeed, we ourselves committed this mistake for years, until we paid a 
visit to the Northern truck gardens and found to our astonishment in 
the vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa., Boston. Mass., and Newark, N. J., that 
the truck gardeners actually spread on each acre every fall from 75 to 
100 two-horse loads of rich stable manure to insure one crop of vege- 
tables, and repeat the same for years. It looked to us like growing truck 
on manure with a little soil mixed in, but it pays there and it would pay in 
the South. Vegetables to become palatable, tender, juicy and attractive, 



Iloir Plants Groir. 11 

must be grown quickly and there is but two agents and that is manure and 
some more manure. There isn't any doubt but one acre well manured 
will bring more and better vegetables than any three acres half manured, 
and if you decide to practise economy, practise it somewhere else out- 
side of the vegetable garden in the way of manuring. 



HOW PLANTS GKOW. 

THE FOUNDATIOX PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESSFUL CULTURE. 

The parts of a garden plant are commonly six — 

1st. The Eoot^ growing in the soil, and by its delicate tips taking up 
the water with its dissolved mineral food. 

2d. The Stem^ giving rise through its buds to leaves and flower, and 
serving as the channel for the soil water to rise to the leaves and for the 
true .^ap to return with its supply of sugar, etc., to build the growing 
parts or be stored for future use (of plant or animal) in stem, leaf, fruit, 
seed or thickened root. 

3d. The Leaves, spreading their broad surface to the sunshine and air, 
and liolding in their green cells the living substance which alone has 
wonderful power to utilize the direct sunlight in producing starch and 
other foods from the crude soil, water and carbon dioxide of the air. 

4th. The Flower, its bright colors and sweet odors, advertisements for 
the visits of helpful insects (bees, butterflies, etc.) ; its curious shape a 
protection against rain and undue heat, as well as against smooth, crawl- 
ing insects (ant, etc.), which would not bring pollen from the plants, and 
at the same time, while guiding welcome visitors to the rewarding nectar, 
compelling them to touch the right place (stigma) with their pollen- 
dusted bodies. 

5th. The Fruit. This represents the time and effort of the season. Its 
bright colors attract and its agreeable and nourishing food rewards the 
animal which will aid in spreading the seed to new soil or larger room. 
If not edible, fruits commonly have some device to catch the wind or 
cling fo the covering of visitors (burr.) 

■ 6th. The Seed is within the fruit and protected by it till mature. 
Within each seed is a germ able to give rise to a new plant resembling its 
parent; a supply of highly-concentrated food to nourish the baby plantlet 
till it can feed by leaves and root of its own, and one or more "coats" to 
protect both during this resting stage. 

With this brief outline of the organs of a plant and their functions, let 
us next consider: 

The Soil. Eecent study of this has laid foundations of a "new agricul- 



13 How Plants Grow. 

ture," which contends that the mechanical condition of the soil is of prime 
importance; that in a well drained, deeply tilled, thoroughly pulverized 
and mellow soil the roots of a plant will extend so widely as to gather suf- 
ficient food from even a relatively small supply, and so deeply as to be 
almost proof against drouth. The thorough preparation of a deep seed 
bed saves manure (by admitting the air to liberate plant food) and is 
really more essential, for without it all may fail. 

Drainage must be had to secure this tilth. This is best secured by tile 
laid at a proper depth, as such drains are never clogged with weeds, ice 
and snow, and are out of the way. Even land on which no surface water 
stands will be benefited. The draining prevents surface washing; retains 
the porous condition left by the frost and permits early and successful 
pulverizing; allows the air to enter and liberate plant food; invites the 
roots to strike deeply; absorbs and holds the limited rainfall of summer 
better and dries the surface quickly after. 

Sand in the soil makes it more easily pulverized, but if in excess permits 
plant food to waste and is changeable in temperature. Such sands need 
the addition of clay to make them more adhesive and humus (decaying 
vegetable matter) to retain fertilizers; black soil absorbs the sun's heat 
and warms down more quickly than sand. 

Stiff clays need fall plowing and the addition of sand, or humus in the 
form of stable manure, muck from swamps or heavy growths of clover, 
cowpeas, etc., turned to aid the subsoil. Plow, disk and harrow, in pul- 
verizing 8 to 10 inches of soil. Do not hesitate to repeat the plowing sev- 
eral times if needed to bring a deep, mellow soil ; but once done, be very 
cautious about working land when wet or it will again become heavy. 

Fertilizers. Not only does coarse material loosen up the soil, but 
plant food and moisture are also supplied. Long standing crops, whose 
roots are not used for food (corn, etc.), will thrive on such nourishment 
if a little quick-acting manure can be applied to enable the young roots to 
quickly reach it. Eoot crops (beets, etc.), on the other hand would be dis- 
torted and injured by coarse food and thrive best in soils heavily manured 
the previous season, started by a surface dressing of concentrated fertilizers. 
Some plants tend to "run to vine" and set fruit too late. In such cases 
manure in the hill and the check to the growth when that supply is used 
will induce fruiting. 

Cultivation should be deep away from the roots of the pknts but shal- 
low near the roots and should be very frequent. Frequent cultivations 
make more plant food available, keeps the surface loose, which as a mulch 
holds the moisture, kills the weeds while small and tender, the easiest 
time to kill them. 



Seeds avd Seed Sotvivg. 13 

Thinning. While it is important to plant sufficient seed to get a good 
stand, allowing "one for the blackbird, two for the crow, three for the in- 
sects, and four to grow." It is also very necessary to thin out well. A 
certain amount of nourishment is necessary to grow the plant and it must 
have room, sunshine and air to flourish. One plant too many is as bad as 
a weed in the hill. 



SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. 

Like begets like; seeds produce plants and fruits true to the parentage, 
unless two varieties of the same species are planted closely together and 
when the pollen of the blooms or flowers are mixed through the agency 
of winds and insects they produce what is termed hybrids. As a rule hy- 
brids are worthless because they are degenerates from the true strain, the 
mixture producing abnormally large or diminutive shapes, different tex- 
tures, colors and in some instances almost nauseating flavors; for instance, 
when watermelons and cucumbers are grown closely together, the melon 
will be diminutive in size and lack the bright red colored meat and devoid 
of all sweetness and flavor; the cucumbers, likewise, abnormally large, of 
rounder shape, lighter color, smoother skin and without the peculiar cu- 
cumber flavor which makes this vegetable a great favorite to so many epi- 
cures. 

It follows, then, to obtain pure seeds, the law of separation of the parent 
plant from others of the same species must be obeyed; the pedigree of a 
seed is as important as the pedigree of a graded animal, and yet through 
intelligent hybridization of trees and vegetables some of the most valu- 
able acquisitions to the orchard and vegetable garden have been made and 
being continuously added season after season, all seed growers vying con- 
stantly with each other to produce new and useful fruits and vegeta- 
bles. From the foregoing it must be concluded that pure seeds must be 
obtained to bring about true and satisfactory results. In Part IV of this 
book a complete chapter will be devoted to all varieties of seeds, regarding 
purity, best varieties, how to keep and plant seeds on the farm or garden, 
and the attention of our readers is respectfully called to that part for fur- 
ther information regarding seeds. 



INSECTS. 



Insects are the recognized serious enemies to all agriculture, whether on 
the farm, orchard, garden or pouliry yard. The menace of ravages by 
insects is so great that even the entire earth could be devastated and the 



14 ^ Forcing Plants and Fruits to Maturity. 

human family and animals annihilated from its face, by a little insignificant 
insect so small that it might take a million to weigh a pound, but na- 
ture throws safeguards around its vegetation in the shape of low tempera- 
ture, hot sunrays, floods, drouths, which all contribute to check and destroy 
insect life; then there are multitudes of animals, as fowls, birds, bugs and 
ants, who use the insects as food and render valuable assistance in check- 
ing and exterminating insects, and finally comes man, with his ingenious 
methods of traps, machines and poisons to complete the safeguards around 
his crops. Particularly in the last few years the American horticulturist 
and agriculturist has been confronted with the insect plague as a serious 
problem to solve. We have only to mention the Hessian fly, green bug, 
boll weevil, San Jose scale and numerous other insects, to corroborate the 
above statement. The time has arrived when all culturists must provide 
remedies for insects to save their crops, the same as they provide seeds, fer- 
tilizers, cultivation and land to plant their crops. It is for this reason we 
devote a special chapter in Part IV for the destruction of insects on the 
farm, orchard and garden, by describing machines, insecticides, spraying 
time and what to spray for different crops and different insects and this 
part of the book should be closely studied, as often an ounce of preventa- 
tive is worth a pound of cure and may be the means of saving an entire 
crop. 



PORCING PLANTS AND FRUITS TO MATURITY. 

The modern fruit grower devises many means to force his crop to ma- 
turity in the early spring, as the difference in earliness of even a week or 
ten days ahead of his neighbors or competitors means a considerable in- 
crease of profit. He may even realize more profit in those ten days than 
his competitor will on his whole crop; while it pays to be earl^ in all lines 
of vocation; this rule certainly holds good in the vegetable and fruit in- 
dustry. 

The most important method employed by market gardeners is the green- 
house or hotbed. The construction of a greenhouse is costly and the 
artificial heat required by the greenhouse is expensive, therefore the aver- 
age market gardener arranges hotbeds in which he places fresh stable 
manure in the bottom and thereby creates a cheap heat which lasts about 
six weeks or sufficiently long to grow his plants ready for the field when 
all danger of late frost is over. Sometimes hotbeds are also heated 
by artificial heat by making a furnace at one end and running a flue under 
the beds through which the smoke and heat passes, gently warming the 
beds. Some form of greenhouse or hotbed is today indispensable to the 



liolatioii of Crops. 15 

modern garden and Part IV will' contain valuable hints how to construct 
cheap greenhouses, hotbeds and how to manage them. 

There are many other ways to hasten crops, by planting seeds in boxes 
such as cucumbers and melons, which are hard to transplant. Seeds are 
also planted right in the field and covered during inclement weather, all 
which will receive special attention in Part IV of this book. 



POTATION OF CROPS. 

It is a fixed law that the same crop can not be grown in succession on 
the same land for more than a certain period. Every crop has its limit, 
and this is especially true of fruit and truck, and when the growing of the 
same crop on the same land is persisted in, diminished crops, insects, 
blight, rust are the inevitable consequences. Some crops may be grown 
much longer than others on the same land ; on rich new land wheat or corn 
may even be grown for 40 years or more without much visible diminish- 
ment. If you grow cabbage for five years on the same land, the crop will 
suffer from all kinds of diseases, such as clubroot, root rot and blight. 
Other vegetables suffer in a like manner and no vegetable of the same spe- 
cies should be grown longer than two seasons on the same land. The 
older nations, as the Chinese, Japanese, German, English or French, have 
practised rotation of crops for centuries as a necessity. 

The American farmer, backed by rich alluvial soils, has had little occa- 
sion to disturb himself about rotation of crops; for decades he planted 
wheat, cotton and corn on the same land, until now at this time his crops 
are threatened with extermination by worn-out soils and the insect pest, 
and like the older nations he will be forced to rotate his crops if he desires 
maximum results on his farm. A stay of proceedings may be secured by 
resorting to fertilizing and furnishing the required elements absorbed by 
each particular crop, but rotation, assisted by fertilizing, will always be 
found the true remedy to restore both his land and crops to original' 
abundance. 

It is not necessary to go to Asia or Europe to observe rotation of crops. 
In the northeastern part of the United States, where land has been under 
cultivation for several centuries, rotation of crops is rigidly enforced and 
practised. 

We can not do better than to illustrate the mode of rotation of crops 
as practised by the Pennsylvania Dutch farmers. The Pennsylvania 
farms are the highest priced farms in the United States. Very few 
farms ever offered for sale. The farms as a rule remain as heirlooms in 



16 Harvesting and Picl-ing Fruits and Vegetables Properly 

the same family usually descending from father to the oldest son, or one 
who shows natural inclination for farm life. 

If the farm consists of five hundred acres or fifty acres, it is divided into 
five lots of equal acreage. In lot one the Pennsylvania farmer will sow 
his wheat in the fall, and at the same time with the wheat sows timothy 
or grass seed for subsequent hay crops and pasture ; when in July the wheat 
is harvested, the grass is only a few inches high. As soon, however, as the 
wheat is cut and the wheat straw removed the young grass, assisted by 
summer showers, takes a start and produces a fine hay crop in the fall. 
During mild weather in winter the cattle and horses are turned in the lot, 
but housed and fed in warm barns every night. This lot remains in hay 
field and pasture for two years; this lot is then broken in the fall and 
planted to corn the following spring, restored, rested and enriched by the 
grass roots, grass being a leguminous crop, calculated to enrich the soil 
and a splendid crop of com is made, sometimes exceeding one hundred and 
fifty bushels per acre. The corn crop on the land is then succeeded by 
oats. When the oats are harvested, the lot is heavily manured from the 
year's accumulation on the farm and again sown to wheat and grass 
Every lot receives a dressing of manure every three years. One lot being 
in grass two years, it requires five lots to perpetuate this rotation. It 
will be observed by the above scientific rotation that rotation is the gate- 
way to successful farming and gardening. 



HARVESTING AND PICKING FEUITS AND VEGETABLES 

PROPERLY. 

This is an important subject, because much of the profits from the or- 
chard and garden depends entirely upon the science of picking fruits and 
vegetables at the proper stage, so as to reach market in the right condition. 
All fruits and vegetables approaching ripeness give but little warning, and 
experience that teaches us to observe small signs of approaching ripeness 
in fruits and vegetables is undoubtedly the best teacher, yet by reading a 
few simple directions the new beginner may reap some knowledge to reach 
partial success until experience assists further to complete and reward his 
labor. The picking of all fruits and vegetables at the exact time for 
distant market is so essential and exact that it might be said that a fruit 
or vegetable is too green to pick one day, the next day just right, and the 
next day too ripe for shipping, but would just be right for eating. 

AH- fruits and vegetables, with a few exceptions, will attain their best 
shape, color and flavor if left to ripen on the tree, bush or vine. All ob- 



Harvesting and Picl-ing Fruits and Yegetahles PropcrJij. 17 

servers will agree on that point, yet to succeed in shipping the products 
must ripen in transit in order to reach market in the pink of condition, 
and for the instruction of our readers we give below a few points about 
different fruits and vegetables which may prove of good service to succeed 
in picking at the right time. 

Asparagus. Asparagus must be cut four or five inches below the sur- 
face, when the slightest break is noticed on the surface of the soil or the 
asparagus bed. 

Beans. Both bush and pole beans should be picked when two-thirds 
grown, while they are still tender and before the seeds are fully developed. 

Oabhage. Cabbage for market should be cut when the heads are hard 
and solid ; never ship a loose or soft head. When cabbage is still soft it is 
a sign that it is still growing and not matured. Cabbage left too long in 
the field will burst open and go to seed. During harvest time of cabbage 
the field should be gone over ever}' day. 

Celery. Celery should only be shipped when thoroughly bleached to a 
rich white or cream color and tender. Celery green, stringy and tough is 
unsalable in any market. 

Egg Plant. Egg plants are comparatively easy to pick at the right 
time, as the dark blue purple color denote ripenness and egg plants con- 
tinue in good shipping order for several days. 

Melons. Cantaloupes are the hardest fruit to pick at the right time 
and considerable experience is required to determine the exact moment. 
If picked just a little too green they will have no flavor; if picked too 
ripe they will not carry to distant market and must be used for close-by 
markets. When cantaloupes are about ripe for shipping they will show just 
the slightest tinge of color between the netting and the button loosens 
readily with a slight pressure of the thumb, and these are about the only 
correct signs available. When the cantaloupe drops off the button of its 
own accord it is just right to eat but too ripe to ship. 

Melons. Watermelons when thoroughly ripe are a delicious luxury, 
when green an abomination and disappointment, especially when the price 
is high and our expectation raised high for a treat early in the season. 
Nearly all firet cars of watermelons are cut too green. Growers are anxious to 
get into market first and quite often pick the melon before it is fullgrown. 
Watermelons are unlike other products; they will not ripen in transit and 
the green melons hurt the sale of the car and reputation of the shipper. 

Many experienced melon pickers can tell a ripe watermelon by the looks ; 
others examine the curl, and when the curl is dead pick the melon. This 
is often misleading. Others squeeze the melon to hear it crack. This in- 
jures the melon for shipping. The best and surest test we ever found is 



18 Harvesting and Picl-ing Fruits and Vegetables Properly. 

to sound the melon with the snap of the fingernail. If the sound is hollow 
and rings the melon is green; if the sound is dead and flat the melon is 
ripe. Snap the top of your shoe; if the melon sounds the same it is sure 
to be ripe. 

Ohra. Okra, in order to be palatable and salable, must be cut daily 
while young and tender. 

Parsley. Parsley for market must be cut while green and before the 
last sign of yellow appears. Parsley is used mostly for decorating dishes 
and must be green to sell at all. 

Peas. English peas are in demand only when the pods are well filled 
and green; there is no sale for empty or old yellow shriveled pods. 

Onions. When the tops of onions begin to fall, the onions are ready 
for harvest; they should then be pulled, cured and dried before packing 
in crates or sacks for market. 

Potatoes. Irish potatoes should not be dug until the skin is well set; 
if dug when the skin slips they are too green and are apt to sour and spoil 
in the cars during transportation to market. 

Spinach. Spinach, like parsley and lettuce, should be cut while tender 
and green; old and yellow spinach is unsalable. 

Tomatoes. Next to cantaloupes, tomatoes are the most difficult fruit 
to pick at the right stage for market, and yet it is easy to one who has 
had some practice; most new beginners will pick tomatoes too green; to be 
on the safe side tomatoes should show a slight tinge of red when picked, 
and there will be no mistake made if after the tomatoes are gathered they 
are assorted according to ripenness, then shipping the ripest ones to close-by 
markets and the greener ones to distant markets. 

Beets. Beets will sell well only in early spring, while young and tender 
and of medium size. 

Cavlifiower. Cauliflower should be cut and shipped as soon as the bloom 
is fully developed and while it is yet firm and hard. 

Cucumbers. Cucumbers for early market should be picked while still 
green and crisp ; the best selling cucumbers are straight, from five to eight 
inches long and of a dark green color. Never ship a cucumber that shows 
the slightest tinge of yellow, as it is too ripe for market. 

Corn. Sweet corn must also be gathered at the right time, when it is 
young and before the grains are fully matured; wormy corn should not be 
shipped at all. 

Garlic. When the tops of garlic begin to droop and show signs of yel- 
lowness it is time for the harvest; pull the garlic up and braid in strings 
garlic. 

Lettuce. Lettuce is a very popular vegetable, but must be placed on 



Fruits. 1!) 

the market in a nice, green, crisp condition; there is no sale for old, with- 
ered and yellow lettuce. Cut and ship when nice and green. 

Mustard. Eead lettuce and parsley. 

Peppers. Peppers, such as the Bullnose, for salad must be picked as 
soon as it is grown and still green. Hot peppers for sauce or chili may 
be left on the bush until completely red or ripe. 

Potatoes. Sweet potatoes for immediate use or early shipment may be 
dug as soon as they are of the required size, but for housing and storing 
in pits for winter they must be allowed to stay in the ground until com- 
pletely ripe; if you cut a sweet potato open and a milky fluid appears in 
drops in the cut part they are not ripe and will not keep for winter use; 
wait until the cut part stays entirely dry. 

Radishes. Eadishes, in order to be palatable and in demand, must be 
grown quickly and should be solid and not pithy. Only gather and ship 
the best. 

Squash. Squash may be shipped as soon as they attain their growth 
and before they become tough. 

Turnips. Large turnips do not sell well, as they are apt to be tough 
and stringy; for early spring shipment no size sells as well as the medium 
small, about the size of a dollar; leave the green tops on, 

FUUITS. 

Apples. Apples for immediate use may be left on the trees until quite 
ripe; care must be exercised not to bruise the fruit; every bruise means 
a rotten spot in a short while. Apples for keeping and storing must be 
even handled more carefully and picked as soon as color of ripenness ap- 
pears. : :, ; 

Pears. The mellow and soft varieties of pears must be picked before 
they are ripe for shipment, else they will not carry and arrive too soft; 
many hard pears (like the Kieffer) should be picked long before they are 
ripe, as they ripen better in straw or storeroom than on the trees. 

Peaches. Peaches for distant shipment should be picked as soon as the 
first blush of color appears and while they are still hard and unfit for im- 
mediate use; they will then ripen in transit nicely for market; softer 
peaches should be disposed of in the nearby markets or used for canning 
or evaporating. 

Strawberries. Strawberries carry best when picked before they attain 
their full red color; this does not mean that they should be picked while 



20 Paching Fruits and Vegetables for Market. 

green; green berries are valueless on the markets. Like peaches, the over- 
ripe berries should be used at home for canning or preserving. 

Blackberries. Blackberries are even more tender than strawberries and 
should be handled only with the greatest care. 

How to pack and ship all fruits and vegetables and in what kind of 
boxes or crates is fully described in Parts II and III of this book. 



PACKING FEUITS AND VEGETAB|LES FOE MAEKET. 

No fruit or produce dealer or experienced shipper will hardly contra- 
dict our statement that the proper selection of fruits and vegetables and 
packing are by all odds the most important features of successful market 
gardening and profits in shipping products to market. The minutest de- 
tail about a crate or box gauges at once the selling price; the style of box, 
the bright appearance of the new wood, the neat and proper marking, the 
careful and substantial nailing are all features vrhich produce pleasant im- 
pressions in the eye of the buyer, because they denote a careful and cau- 
tious packer. 

The shippers of California could never have crossed the continent of 
nearly 3000 miles to market with any hope of profit if it were not for 
their scientific artistic packing. All means are exhausted to make every 
package look as attractive as possible. Who has not admired and was 
tempted to buy by the inviting rows of pears, peaches, apricots, cherries 
and grapes as seen in our fruit stores in the exposed California fruit pack- 
ages. They should convey a lesson to' every observing shipper. Then, 
again, very little, if any, deception is practised by topping off the top with 
the best; the California package will average good all the way to the bot- 
tom and this is most praiseworthy and commendable. 

Every shipper has the privilege to make his shipments look attractive 
by topping with nice fruit or truck, but when this is done for the purpose 
of deception he deceives only himself. Every strange brand or mark is 
carefully examined to the very bottom by the buyer before purchase is 
made, and it is no advantage or benefit to even attempt to deceive the 
customer for your goods; even should you succeed for one time, the buyer 
will steer clear of your shipments the next time. 



DIEECTIONS FOE PACKING. 

Every shipper should have a packing house or shed with a bench about 
table high, where the products are placed in the shade and in consequence 



Parl-in;/ Fniit.^ and Vegdables for Marl-rt. 



21 



cool for packing. Now examine your fruits or truck carefully for worm- 
holes, bruises or any deformity; throw away all that show any defects; 
commencing at the bottom of the box, lay your fruit in rows, gently press- 
ing each piece in its place, until your box is full and protruding slightly 
over the top; now press the lid on gently and nail. All fruit and truck 
to carry well must be packed tight. Some experience is necessary to ac- 
complish all this in a neat manner and practice will always be the best 
final teacher. Many fruits and vegetables are packed in two grades, one 
marked fancy (this means the best). No. two grade marked choice and 
slightly inferior to the first grade, but trashy, wormy, bruised products 
have no grade and no room in commercial shipping when profit is the 
object. 

If fruit or truck is inferior throw it away in your field. Don't pay a 
high rate of express or freight on it only to have it thrown away at the 
other end. 

To illustrate the advantage of shipping only the best, an article ap- 
peared in our paper some time ago, written by the editor, as follows: 

From Southern Shippers' Guide, January 10, 1907. 

THKOW ONE-HALF OF YOUE CROP AWAY ! 

Mayhe you are a Southern shipper and have reaped some hard experi- 
ence in the way of getting poor returns for your shipments. 

Mayhe this is your own fault and not the fault of the commission mer- 
chants, the market, or express companies. 

Mayhe you are a little careless and labor under the impression that any- 
thing will sell because it is early. 

Mayhe you pack everything together, big and little, regardless of color, 
size and appearance. 

Mayhe you don't read instructions in your trade papers on how to pack 
or ship. 

If any of the above reasons are true then your poor account sales are 
your own fault. 

Supposing this season you throw a part or one-half of your crop away — 
we mean, of course, the poor part. 

Let us figure a little: Supposing you had enough tomatoes, good, bad 
and indifferent, to fill ten 4-basket crates full with this mixed lot of good 
and bad. 



22 SJiipping to Marl-ets. 

You ship the ten crates with the following results: 

ACCOUNT sale: 

10 crates at 60c $6 00 

Commission, 10 per cent 60 

$5 40 
Express charges, .40c per crate. $4 00 

Net proceeds $1 40 

Supposing now you assorted the tomatoes carefully, threw away all the 
small, wormy and inferior ones and shipped only six crates. 

ACCOUNT sale: 

6 crates tomatoes at $1.00 $6 00 

Commission, 10 per cent 60 

$5 40 
Express, 40c per crate 2 40 

Net proceeds $3 00 

Any commission merchant will verify our statement that if ill-assorted 
tomatoes wili sell for 60c per crate, good stock assorted would sell for 
$1.00 per crate. 

Now look at the difference in the net proceeds in the account sales. 
One account sale shows 14 cents net per crate, the other 50 cents net per 
crate, but this is not all. You have saved the price of your empty crates, 
nails, labor and hauling, amounting to 15 cents per crate. You have the 
refuse to can or feed to your stock. You have also created a market for 
your goods and established a good reputation as a good shipper. 

Now what is true of tomatoes is true of all other fruit and truck.' It 
pays to ship less and only the good. 

Figure it out for yourself. — Editor. 



SHIPPING TO MAEKETS. 

It will be conceded by our readers that the shipping to market of perish- 
able goods like fruits and vegetables must be done with promptness and 
intelligence; therefore "How to Ship for Profit" becomes an important 
subject. To haul fruit and produce to the depot for shipment without any 
advice of the condition of the markets and to unknown commission mer- 
chants, to say the least, is a haphazard way of doing business and failure 



Marling Shipments Plainly. 23 

must naturally follow as often as success. A hit-or-miss proposition 
is hardly the right way to dispose of property and no experienced shipper 
will employ such methods. He either ships on advice or orders and gen- 
erally succeeds. A month or week before his crop is ready for shipment 
he will study market conditions, write to commission merchants and get 
advice which is mostly useful and indispensable for success, read trade 
papers and find out just what competition there is to face. No one will 
deny that selling the products for cash at the loading station is by far the 
safest proposition, but this can not always be done. While fruit and pro- 
duce dealers will always buy carloads at loading stations, very few can be 
induced to buy small express lots with the high express rates, and therefore 
express lots and even car lots will have to be shipped on consignment in 
most instances. 

In consigning produce to commission merchants one has three obstacles 
to contend with: first, delay en route by the transportation companies; 
second, dishonest commission merchants; and third, overstocked markets. 
Fortunately for the shipper, there are safeguards at all times available to 
them that can be employed in all three of these instances. If delayed by 
the transportation companies for any unreasonable time, the shipper can 
collect damages to the amount of his loss; for information about the re- 
liability of any commission merchant the shipper can go to his local bank, 
any merchant at his station, Dun or Bradsteet mercantile agencies, or if 
he is a subscriber to any regular trade paper he can get the information 
from the publisher — everyone will serve him. With the use of the tele- 
graph the shipper can avoid overstocked markets by diverting cars to other 
more favorable markets, or he can hold his crop back a few days until con- 
ditions improve. It never pays to rush produce indiscriminately to mar- 
kets; it is cheaper to even dump the produce at home and save crates and 
boxes than to ship it to markets where there can not be any profits. It 
is only by constant, accurate and reliable information that shippers can 
expect success, and we advise great caution on all occasions in the ship- 
ping season. Eead our other articles on this important subject in this 
book. 



MAEKING SHIPMENTS PLAINLY. 

It is of the utmost importance that all shipments should be marked 
plainly. During shipping seasons commission merchants are very busy 
people and much of the business falls to clerks who make mistakes, like 
other people. Shipments arrive broken, unmarked ; part of shipment is 



24 Carelessness of Shippers. 

delivered to one merchant and part to another. Some check shorty and 
all this should convince the shipper that it is necessary to use caution, like 
any other business man, and mark every shipment plainly. He would 
save himself and others much annoyance and get a better opinion of the 
commission merchant. A rubber stamp with name of shipper, name of 
town and State, costs but fifty cents, and it is the cheapest thing on earth 
for the amount of good it does, stamped on the corner of an envelope, will 
return your letter if lost, or addressee can't be found; stamped on your 
fruit and vegetable crates, insures accurate delivery, in case of accident, 
the transportation companies can notify you of your loss or make you 
return if diverted to other markets, which sometimes happens. 

The moral of this story is : Never allow a shipment, box, crate, basket, 
bag or any other package, go out of your hands, if shipped by express or 
freight, unless your name, town. State and the merchant's name is plainly 
marked on every package. 



CAEELESSNESS OF SHIPPEES. 

On our visit to New York a commission merchant, whom we know to 
be one of the most reliable men in the business, showed us an envelope in 
which were checks aggregating $600, made out in blank, and account sales 
for produce received in a single month from shippers who had neither sent 
any mail advices of their shipments nor marked the packages with their 
names and addresses. In some eases, the names but not the addresses 
were given, in most cases neither. 

Another commission merchant received a package of butter by express 
with no marks to show the consignor. He took the trouble to write the 
express agent at the office from which it was received, thinking he would 
know the shipper. But the agent said he found the tub, properly marked 
as far as destination was concerned, on the platform when he returned 
from lunch, so he sent it on, but no one had ever appeared to stand 
sponsor for it. 

We hope the foregoing will impress our readers with the importance of 
always marking shipments plainly. 



DIFFEEENT BOXES, CEATES OE HAMPEES TO USE FOE EX- 
PEESS AND CAE LOT SHIPMENTS OF VEGETABLES. 

Asparagiis. — Boxes holding one dozen bunches by express; in carloads 
bushel boxes may be used. 



Different Boxes to Use for Express and Car Lois. 25 

String Beans. — By express, one-third bushel boxes and one-half bushel 
baskets; carloads, one-third bushel boxes, bushel crates or hampers may 
be used. 

Cabbage. — By express or carloads, standard open crates, 20x20x38 inches. 

Celery. — By express or carloads, bushel boxes holding 3 dozen bunches, 
each bunch containing 12 plants of celery. 

Egg Plant. — By express, bushel crates or hampers; by carloads, either 
barrels or hampers. 

Melons, Cantaloupes. — By express, standard crates, 12x24, holding 45 
melons; carloads the same; pony crates or Climax baskets are sometimes 
used, holding each eighteen melons, by express with good results. 

Melons. — Watermelons can only be shipped in car lots with any degree 
of success and profit. 

Watermelons should be loaded in ventilated cars. Clean stock cars are 
as good as any. Never load in a dirty car. Place about 10 inches of 
straw, hay or pine shavings on the bottom of car. Now place every melon 
carefully and snugly in its place, commencing at the ends of the car and 
finishing at tJie doors. Allow no one to walk over the melons. Load the 
car about one-half or less full in height. When loading, carefully exam- 
ine every melon for soft places. Throw out every one that shows any de- 
fect. It is better to throw the melon away at loading than to throw it 
away at the receiving point, after paying freight charges on the melon. 

Okra. — Okra is best shipped by express, in one-third bushel boxes or 
one-half bushel baskets; never ship okra in sacks. 

Parsley. — Ship parsley only in hampers, bushel boxes or barrels, well 
iced with cracked ice throughout the barrels in layers. 

Peas. — For best results ship English peas in one-third bushel boxes, 
hampers, or one-half bushel boxes. Peas are very apt to heat and should 
not be shipped in barrels or large packages. 

Potatoes. — Irish potatoes should invariably be shipped in carlots, in new 
standard sacks holding about 100 pounds each, never in old or dilapi- 
dated sacks. In the first part of the season Irish potatoes may be shipped 
in one-third bushel boxes by express with profit; in carlots, ventilated bar- 
rels may also be used. 

Spinach. — Spinach can be shipped in bushel boxes or hampers in car- 
lots and in bushel boxes and barrels, well iced with cracked ice, by ex- 
press. 

Tomatoes. — The standard crates for tomatoes in carlots or express are 
either the six-basket or four-basket crat& 



26 Different Boxes to Use for Express and Car Lots. 

Beets. — Beets tied in bunches may be shipped in hampers or bushel 
boxes without ice, or barrels with cracked ice, by express. Beets shipped 
in carlots must be shipped in refrigerator cars, well iced, as they are very 
apt to heat. 

Caulifioiver. — Cauliflower should be shipped in bushel boxes or hampers 
without ice, or barrels well iced, by express. 

Cucumbers. — In the first part of the season 'cucumbers may be shipped 
by express in one-third bushel boxes; later on when they become more 
plentiful, in "bushel boxes, hampers or barrels; no icing is required by ex- 
press shipments. In carlots, cucumbers may be shipped in barrels or 
bushel boxes in a well iced refrigerator car. 

Corn. — Sweet corn is very apt to heat in transit and must be shipped 
in small packages like the hampers or bushel boxes; in barrels by express. 
Green corn must be well iced with cracked ice. 

Garlic. — "When garlic is thoroughly dry and cured it may be shipped by 
freight or express in barrels or bushel boxes. 

Lettuce. — Lettuce by express should be shipped in hampers or bushel 
crates without ice. In barrels it must be well iced. In carlots lettuce can 
only be shipped in well iced refrigerator cars. 

Mustard. — Mustard by express should be shipped in barrels well iced. 

Onions. — The Bermuda onions grown in the South are shipped with best 
success in the Cummer folding crate holding about one bushel or fifty 
pounds. It is a risky business to ship any onions from the South in sacks 
and we can not advise sacks for shipments; crates or even barrels give 
better results. 

Peppers. — Green peppers should be shipped in one-third bushel boxes 
only by express ; dry peppers thoroughly seasoned and cured may be shipped 
in sacks by express. 

Potatoes. — Sweet potatoes should always be shipped in barrels or sacks 
either by express or carlots. 

Radishes. — Eadishes are a diffcult crop to ship as the tops are very apt 
to heat and spoil the sale of the radishes. Eadishes may be shipped in 
small packages like one-third bushel boxes or one-half bushel baskets by 
express; when shipped in hampers or barrels they must be well iced with 
cracked ice put in layers in the barrels or hampers. In carlots radishes 
are usually shipped either in bushel boxes or barrels in refrigerator cars, 
well iced and re-iced in transit. 

Turnips. — Turnips with the tops should only be shipped in barrels by 
ex])ress, well iced. 



IIoiv to Mal-e and Construct Packages for Shipment. 27 

FRUITS. 

Apples are packed either in standard apple barrels or boxes containing 
about one bushel. It has been demonstrated that it is more profitable to 
pack apples in boxes than barrels; the boxes are more convenient to handle 
and stack closer in the cars and storage, and are also preferred by the re- 
tail trade. There is no question but that boxes in time will take the place 
of barrels for packing apples. 

Pears. — Pears are preferable packed in one-bushel boxes, except the 
harder cooking varieties, which may be safely packed in barrels. Ham- 
pers also make a neat package for pears. 

Peaches. — Peaches, except the California, which are packed in flat boxes 
containing about one-half bushel, are best packed from the Southern States 
for Northern markets in either six-basket or four-basket crates. 

Apncots. — Apricots should also be packed in either four or six-basket 
crates. 

Plums or Persimmons may be safely packed and -transported to market 
in strawberry crates containing 24 quart boxes, or one-third bushel boxes; 
four-basket crates may also be used for plums or persimmons to good ad- 
vantage; larger packages are undesirable for plums. 

Oranges. — Oranges and grapefruit are invariably packed in the standard 
orange crates. 

Figs. — Pipe figs for raw consumption carry best in strawberry crates 
containing 24 quart boxes; four-basket crates can also be used. 

Grapes. — Grapes are usually packed in the regular grape baskets. Grapes 
also show up well in the four-basket crates, and this is a very desirable 
package for grapes. 

Strawherries. — Strawberries are packed either in crates containing 24 
quarts or in crates containing 24 pints; either makes an attractive pack- 
age, but quarts are more generally used. 

Dewberries and BlacTcherries. — For these berries, see strawberries. 

Pecans. — Pecans are shipped in carlots or less in 100-pound sacks; bar- 
rels can also be used. 

Walnuts. — In sacks, like pecans. 



HOW TO MAKE AND CONSTEUCT PACKAGES FOE SHIP- 
MENTS. 

We stated before in our article on packing that the neat appearance of 
a box has decided influence on the sale of the goods. Crates and boxes 
should be well nailed on all sides. Boxes and crates are often roughly 



28 How to Ship by Express. 

handled, and every broken box means a loss to the shipper. Nails should 
be long enough to hold and when driven with the grain of the wood should 
be slightly slanting; in that position they will hold much better. A nail 
driven straight with the grain of the wood will pull out on the slightest 
pressure. 

Care should also be exercised that the points of the nails do not pro- 
trude from the edges or sides of the boxes. Crates and boxes of fruits 
and vegetables are often transferred from one car to another in a hurry 
at night, and to have nail points sticking out is a very dangerous proposi- 
tion for the handlers; therefore for humane reasons, if for no other, all 
crates and boxes should be nailed securely. It is not advisable to use old 
weather-worn or soiled box lumber; only the bright and clean box or crate 
has an inviting appearance. 

To ship fruits or vegetables in soap or shoe boxes or any old box is time 
and labor thrown away; the trade does not take kindly to such question- 
able receptacles. ' 



HOW TO SHIP BY EXPEESS. 

In the first place, read our instructions on different crates or boxes to 
use for express shipments. To use crates of doubtful capacity is mysti- 
fying to the purchasers and express agent. It pays to use only standard 
crates. Next read our article on packing. Any fruit or truck that is not 
the very best selected and packed can not stand the express charges, espe- 
cially to interstate points. 

Then ask your express agent for an express book to keep a perfect record 
of every shipment you make. Several weeks before your crop is ready to 
ship read market reports in any trade paper published in the interest of 
shippers, and which gives you information where to ship and to whom to 
ship. 

No one can expect to succeed unless supplied with late data about mar- 
ket conditions. To ship blindlj'-, either by express or otherwise, means loss, 
as express charges are high. Mark your boxes very plainly with your 
name and station and for whom the shipment is intended at destination. 
It is a good plan to mark both ends — it saves much useless handling and 
turning over by express employes. 

Large cities like St. Louis, Chicago, New York, Boston, etc., are sup- 
plied with most fruits and vegetables in carload lots, which can be sold 
much cheaper. It is perfectly useless to make express shipments to com- 
pete with carlots, as express charges eat up all profit. Hunt small mar- 
kets. They are the most profitable for express shipments. 



IIow to Collect Overchargcfi from Express Companies. 2d- 

It is also a good plan in shipping by express to divide up the shipments 
and not ship all to one market. Express shipments to Northern, Eastern 
and Western markets move at the rate of about five hundred miles in 34 
hours, including stops and transfers. All of the fruits and vegetables 
must be picked and shipped in the stage of ripeness to conform as nearly 
as possible to the time it takes to reach the markets. Many fruits and 
vegetables shipped by express must be also iced according to that time, and 
every shipper should become familiar with distances, in order to ship in- 
telligently and with profit by express. 



HOW TO COLLECT OVEECHAKGES FEOM EXPEESS COM- 
PANIES. 

It is quite frequently that overcharges are made by express agents, and 
these must be looked after by the shippers. Every shipper that expects to 
make a success must post himself in regard to weights, estimated weights 
and rates. Both the interstate commerce law and State laws compel all 
common carriers, express companies included, to keep on file all of the 
tariffs to all points, for the inspection of the general public; shippers 
should insist upon examining the rates and become familiar with the 
same. 

^^^len an account sale is received from the commission merchant, exam- 
ine the same closely; if there is any overcharge above the authorized rate, 
make out a bill for the amount and present the same, with the account 
sale attached, to your local express agent. The rules and regulations of 
all express companies require the agent to present the claim to the audit- 
ing department and get the overcharge refunded to the shipper. If pay- 
ment of overcharge is refused by the express companies, suit for the 
amount may be instituted in the local courts for recovery of the overcharge 
and costs of court. 



ESTIMATED WEIGHTS i 

AS PROMULGATED BY THE RAILROAD COMMISSION OF TEXAS FOR EXPRESS 
SHIPMENTS^ EFFECTIVE NOVEMBER 1, 1905. * 

These estimated weights only apply between points in Texas. '^ 

FRUITS. 

Estimated weights : For use unless actual weight is less : 

Apples, per standard barrel „...! , 150 lbs. 

Apples, 1-3 bushel box .......; ; '. 15 lbs- 
Berries and figs, 24 quart crates „ 85 lbs, 

3 



30 Estimated Weights. 

Lemons, boxes 14x13x37 inches 80 lbs. 

Oranges, boxes 14x13x27 inches : _ 70 lbs. 

Peaches, 1-3 bushel boxes 18 lbs. 

Peaches, 1-4 bushel boxes 12.5 lbs. 

Peaches, 4 baskets (1-8 bushel each) crates 20 lbs. 

Pears, 1 bushel boxes 40 lbs. 

Pears, 1-3 bushel boxes 15 lbs. 

Pears, Climax baskets 15 lbs. 

Plums, 4 basket (1-8 bushel each) crates 20 lbs. 

VEGETABLES. 

Subject to tariff rates, and the following estimated weights unless actual 
weight is less: 

Beans, 1-3 bushel box or basket 10 lbs. 

Beans, 1 bushel box or basket 30 lbs. 

Beets, with tops, flour barrels 90 lbs. 

Beets, with tops, sugar barrels 110 lbs. 

Beets, with tops, crates 16x16x26 inches 50 lbs. 

Beets, without tops, flour barrels 110 lbs. 

Beets, without tops, sugar barrels 125 lbs. 

Cabbage, in crates 20x20x28 inches 100 lbs. 

Carrots, with tops, flour barrels 90 lbs. 

Carrots, with tops, sugar barrels 110 lbs. 

Carrots, with tops, crates 16x16x26 inches 50 lbs. 

Carrots, without tops, flour barrels 110 lbs. 

Carrots, without tops, sugar barrels 125 lbs. 

Cauliflower, flour barrels 85 lbs. 

Cauliflower, crates 12x18x24 inches 50 lbs. 

Cucumbers, 1-3 bushel 15 lbs. 

Cucumbers, 1-2 bushel _ 20 lbs. 

Cucumbers, 1 bushel 40 lbs. 

Cucumbers, 1% bushel 70 lbs. 

Cucumbers, flour barrels.. 150 lbs. 

Cucumbers, sugar barrels 200 lbs. 

Egg plant, crates 12x12x24 inches 40 lbs. 

Egg plant, flour barrels 90 lbs. 

Egg plant, sugar barrels _... 110 lbs. 

(Lettuce, flour barrels 60 lbs. 

Mixed vegetables, flour barrels 90 lbs. 

Mixed vegetables, sugar barrels „ 100 lbs. 

Mixed vgetables, crates 16x16x26 inches 50 lbs. 



Estimated Weigliis. 31 

Mustard, flour barrels 60 lbs. 

Mustard, sugar barrels _ 70 lbs. 

Okra, 1-3 bushel 10 lbs. 

Okra, 1 bushel 30 lbs. 

Onions, green, flour barrels 60 lbs. 

Onions, green, sugar barrels 70 lbs. 

Onions, 1-4 bushel 15 lbs. 

Onions, 1-3 bushel 20 lbs. 

Onions, 1 bushel 60 lbs. 

Onions, flour barrels 150 lbs. 

Parsley, flour barrels 60 lbs. 

Peas, 1-3 bushel 10 lbs. 

Peas, 1 bushel 30 lbs. 

Peppers, 1-3 bushel 10 lbs. 

Peppers, 1 bushel :.. 30 lbs. 

Potatoes, 1-4 or 1-3 bushel 15 lbs. 

Potatoes, 1 bushel 60 lbs. 

Potatoes, flour barrels 150 lbs. 

Radishes, with tops, flour barrels 90 lbs. 

Eadishes, with tops, sugar barrels 110 lbs. 

Eadishes, with tops, crates 16x16x26 inches _ 50 lbs. 

Eadishes, without tops, flour barrels _ 110 lbs. 

Eadishes, without tops, sugar barrels 125 lbs. 

Spinach, flour barrels 60 lbs. 

Squash, 1-4 bushel 121/2 lbs. 

Squash, 1-3 bushel 15 lbs. 

Squash, 1 bushel 40 lbs. 

Squash, flour barrels _ 130 lbs. 

Tomatoes, 1-3 bushel , 18 lbs. 

Tomatoes, 4-basket crates ' 20 lbs. 

Turnips, with tops, flour barrels 90 Ihs. 

Turnips, with tops, sugar barrels 110 lbs. 

Turnips, with tops, crates 16x16x26 inches 50 lbs. 

Turnips, without tops, flour barrels 110 lbs. 

Turnips, without tops, sugar barrels _ 125 lbs. 

*Tladishes, beets, mustard, turnips, spinach, lettuce, onions, carrots, col- 
liards and parsley, in crates 12x12x22 or 16x16x22 inches, where ice is 

used for preservation, rate shall be assessed on weight 20 per cent less than 
actual gross weight." 



32 Hoio to Ship by Freight. 

Fruit and vegetable empties (not refrigerators), N. 0. S., which have 
contained berries, fruits or vegetables, may be returned to the original 
shipper at the following rates: 

36 quart capacity or less 5c each 

More than 36 quart capacity 10c each 

When nested, merchandise pound rates Eule 14 

It must be understood that these estimated weights do not apply to any 
interstate points. The Interstate Commerce Commission has not estab- 
lished any estimated weights on interstate shipments by express, but have 
issued special package rates on fruit and vegetables, effective May 8, 1907, 
a copy of which is required by law to be posted in every express office of 
the United States for the inspection of shippers. 



HOW TO SHIP BY FREIGHT. 

Very nearly all the fruits and vegetables shipped by freight are shipped 
in solid or mixed carlots, although we think a great deal of our heavy pro- 
duce should be shipped by local freight in State shipments, as the cost is 
much less. To give an idea of the relative cost of express and freight 
charges, let us cite as follows : The express charge from Texas points to 
the city of Chicago is $3 per 100 pounds. The freight charge in carlots 
is oOc per 100 pounds. A bushel of cucumbers weighs 50 pounds. Sup- 
pose a bushel of cucumbers would sell for $1.50 per bushel in Chicago. 
The shipper would get nothing in return by express, yet he would get 
95c per bushel for his cucumbers if shipped in carlots, 30c being de- 
ducted for icing charges and commission. It follows that very little can 
be shipped by express to large cities with carlots to compete. Cars of 
fruits and vegetables must only be loaded by experienced loader.^;, which 
most of the refrigerator companies furnish. The minimum weight of a 
carload, as accepted by railroads, is 20,000 pounds. This means you must 
pay for 20,000 pounds, even if you put in less. If you put in more you 
will be charged for the excess at regular rates. Peaches, tomatoes, beans, 
cucumbers, cantaloupes, all fruits and mixed vegetables must be shipped 
in refrigerator cars, well iced. An additional charge is made for thia 
service. Watermelons, potatoes and onions can be shipped in open ven- 
tilated cars without ice. Never overload a car. You gain nothing in 
freight rates and it only adds to the risk of the produce spoiling en route. 
Obtain a bill of lading, stating that contents are in good order, and have 
it stated on bill of lading where re-icing should take place. 



QUANTITY OF PEODUCE REQUIEED TO MAKE A CARLOAD 
OF TWENTY THOUSAND POUNDS. 

FRUITS. 

Apples. — 125 barrels; 500 boxes. 

Berries. — 600 crates. 

Lemons. — 300 boxes. 

Oranges. — 384 boxes. 

Peaches. — 1000 four-basket crates; 800 six-basket crates. 

VEGETABLES. 

Beans. — String beans, 1500 one-third bushel boxes; 500 bushel boxes. 

Cabbage.— 200 standard crates 20x20x28, 

Melons, Cantaloupes. — 400 standard crates 12x12x24. 

Melons, Watermelons. — Average weight 20 pounds, 1000 melons. 

Potatoes, Irish. — 200 sacks. 

Tomatoes. — 1000 four-basket crates; 800 six-basket crates. 

Cucumbers. — 400 bushel crates. 

Onions. — 400 bushel crates. 

All of the above means minimum weight of 20,000 pounds to the car. 
The shipper at his option may load cars heavier, but an additional cost 
of freight must be paid. 



HOW MANY ACRES OF FRUIT OR TRUCK MUST BE PLANTED 
TO SECURE CARLOTS DAILY. 

The question of how mucli should be planted to secure carlots promptly 
is an important one to the grower who desires to load cars, as delays in 
loading cars for several days means always a proportionate loss, as some 
of the produce loaded first will be old and wilted, if not spoiled, when 
reaching the markets. 

Most any one acre of melons, cantaloupes, cabbage, cucumbers or onions 
will produce a full car in about thirty days, but to secure a carload every 
day a proportionate number of acres must be planted. To make this per- 
fectly plain, let us assume that an acre of cucumbers will produce 400 
bushels in 30 days; this means thirteen and one-third bushels per acre 
per day, and 30 acres would be required to produce 400 bushels every 
day — sufficient to load a car every 24 hours. The above is a low estimate, 



34 To Ice Cars or Local Express Shipments. 

but to be on the safe side plant 30 acres of cucumbers if you desire to 
load cars every day. 

To secure carloads every day of the following produce, plant: 

Beans (String beans). — 25 acres. 

Cabbage. — 40 acres. 

Celery. — 15 acres. 

Cantaloupes. — 25 acres. 

Peas (English). — 20 acres. 

Potatoes (Irish). — 30 acres. 

Potatoes (Sweet). — 25 acres. 

Tomatoes. — 40 acres. 

Beets. — 30 acres. 

Cauliflower. — 40 acres. 

Cucumbers. — 30 acres. 

Corn (Sweet). — 35 acres. 

Lettuce. — 15 acres. 

Onions. — 25 acres. 

Radishes. — 20 acres. 

Turnips. — 20 acres. 

Watermelons. — iO acres. 

The above table will be found very useful to truck growers or associa- 
tions that desire to plant sufficient acreage to insure prompt carload ship- 
ments. 



TO ICE CAES OE LOCAL EXPEESS SHIPMENTS. 

As a rule the refrigeration or railroad companies into whose cars the 
fruit and produce is loaded furnish experienced loaders to see that the 
packages are properly fastened in the car, also to attend to the icing of 
the car, and the shipper is usually relieved of any labor about icing or 
other matters. 

As the shipper is as much or more interested in the welfare of the 
cars than the transportation companies, he should see that every car is 
properly iced at starting point before leaving, and have it specified on bill 
of lading that the cars must be re-iced at all re-icing points. 

Five tons is about the proper amount of ice, 2% tons in each bunker 
at the ends, that should be placed in the cars at the shipping point, and 
the car must be re-iced every 24 hours while en route, or else there is 
every prospect of a spoiled car. 



Time Required by Carloads to Reach Markets. 35 

ICING EXPRESS SHIPMENTS. 

The icing of express shipments must be done in the packages with 
cracked ice laid in layers between the produce. The amount of ice re- 
quired is gauged by the distance the shipment is to travel and time con- 
sumed. A block of ice in the center of the barrel is no protection; as we 
stated before the ice must be cracked and scattered in layers throughout 
the barrel. 

Lettuce, beets, radishes, spinach, green onions, parsley, carrots and mus- 
tard shipped by express in barrels, hampers or crates must all be iced 
thoroughly to insure safe delivery to market. 



TIME EEQUIEED BY CAELOADS TO EEACH MAEKETS. 

From observations we find that cars of perishables under fast freight 
schedules, including all stops for re-icing and transfer switches, travel 
about fifteen miles per hour and this is considered good time. Some rail- 
roads, operating special fruit and vegetable trains, even exceed that speed, 
but most roads show much less speed, and there is really no fixed time to 
depend on in freight movements. We have seen a car go from South 
Texas points to Chicago, 111., in four days; the very next car consumes 
nine days over the same route. 

To avoid losses by delays en route, shippers should file car numbers 
and when the car has not been reported arriving at the proper time, re- 
quest the railroad agent at the shipping point to send tracer after the car; 
often losses may be avoided by prompt actions. 



THE USE OP MAIjL, TELEGEAPH AND TELEPHONE FOE 

MAEKET QUOTATIONS AND SHIPPING. • ^ 

Both mail- and telegraph service are indispensable during shipping sea- 
son, as often a single message may avoid a loss of hundreds of dollars. 
The main points are the condition of markets and movement of cars. 
When a shipper keeps a perfect record of his car and knows about what 
point the car should be at, he can, upon learning that the market for 
which his car was originally destined is becoming overstocked on the class 
of products in his car, divert his car or cars to more favorable markets. 
On the through rate this privilege is accorded to shippers by all railroad 
companies, and every railroad agent at shipping points has instructions to 
furnish shippers with all necessary information for the prompt diversion 



36 SJiipping Rules and Grades. 

of cars. It is therefore obvious that liberal use of telegraph facilities is 
advisable on all occasions. 

PAYMENT FOR TELEGRAMS. 

Numbers of shippers are in the habit of sending many telegrams collect 
to commission merchants, asking about market quotations. This is a 
hard tax on the commission merchant and should not be indulged in. 
If the information asked for in the telegram is for the benefit of the 
sender of the telegram, the telegram should be paid for by the sender. 
This is a common rule among all business men and should be strictly 
adhered to. 



SHIPPING RULES AND QRADES. 

Today's shipment means shipment before midnight, or on next train 
due to leave after order by telegraph or letter has been received. 

Immediate shipment allows twelve hours. 

Prompt shipment allows twenty-four hours. 

The date on bill of lading constitutes evidence for compliance of order. 

Shipment of potatoes from the South shall be allowed a shrinkage of 3 
per cent of the gross weight and cabbage 6 per cent. 

Complaints as to weight, shortage of grades must be filed and shipper 
notified within thirty-six hours. 

F. O. B. SALES. 

F. 0. B. sales means the goods must be paid for when loaded and l)eforc 
it leaves the shipper's station. The same rule applies if the buyer diverts 
the car to other points. With the consent of the shipper drafts F. 0. B. 
may be paid upon arrival of car at destination. 

ADVANCE ON CONSIGNMENT. 

Advance on consignment is payable at any time when requested, even be- 
fore the car is loaded or rolling. Advances on consignments may be made 
on growing crops and crops to be bought for the consignee. 

JOINT ACCOUNT. 

Joint accounts means profits and losses alike to shipper and consignee. 
Mutual contracts between the parties concerned must be drawn and reduced 
to writing, properly witnessed. 

DOCKAGE. 

, Dockage means shortness of the car or shipment, by theft, decay, short 



Grades of Fruits and Yegetahlcs. 37 

weight or an excess of dirt or foreign matter in the products. The amount 
of dockage may be agreed upon by both parties interested. 

A refused car is one subject to the order of the shipper. 

If a car arrives and is not immediately inspected l)y the consignee and 
then refused, tiie consignee is liable for the damage. 

Notice of rejection must be wired to the shipper within twelve hours 
after arrival of the car. 

If the car is switched on the private track of the consignee it means ac- 
ceptance of the car. 

BROKERAGE RULES. 

A broker cannot claim brokerage on a rejected car unless he succeeds in 
selling the car to other parties, with the consent and satisfaction of the 
shipper. 

The usual brokerage charges are five dollars per car. 

UNDER HEAD OF GRADES. 

Potatoes. — No. 1 or fancy potatoes shall be true to variety, and none 
shall be less than two inches in diameter. 

No. 3 or choice shall mean mixed potatoes as to variety, but all of one 
color and none less than IV^ inches in diameter. 



GEADES OF FEUITS AND VEGETABLES. 

All fruits or vegetables shipped in ca riots or in express shipments should 
be strictly graded according to appearance, size and color, because fruit and 
produce, all mixed up together — good, bad and indifEerent — is not salable, 
and if sold at all, the grade is established as the lowest grade in the pacl'- 
age. It must be quite plain to the shipper, in order to derive the benefit 
of his good produce, he must keep it separate from the bad. With a few 
exceptions in fruit and produce, there are three grades — fancy, choice and 
culls. To mix all three together means culls, and will be sold as 
such, as there is no grade established on the market for mixtures. To 
assist shippers in establishing grades we give below a table on each fruit 
and vegetable according to rules familiar to and exacted by the trade. 

Apples. — The standard for size for Number One apples shall not be less 
than two and one-half inches in diameter and shall include only standard 
varieties. Numl)er One apples shall be, at the time of packing, free from 
worms, defacement of surface; shall be hand-picked from the tree, a bright 
and good color and shapely form. 

Number Two apples shall be hand-picked from the tree; shall not be 
smaller than two inches in diameter. The skin must not be broken or the 
apple bruised. 



38 Grades of Fruits and Vegetables. ^ 

Apples unfit for either Number One or Number Two grades should be 
converted into cider or stock food. 

Beans (String beans). — No. 1 string beans must be straight, stringless 
and free from any rust spots. No. 2 may be smaller, but must be tender 
and palatable and free from black rust. Culls, no demand. 

Cabbage. — No. 1 cabbage heads should average five pounds, solid and 
free from lice. 

No. 2 includes cabbage of all sizes, either too large or too small. No 
sale or demand for soft heads. 

Cucumbers. — No. 1 cucumbers should be straight, of dark green color 
and about eight inches long. 

No. 2. — Odd lengths, but straight and green, grade as No. 2. Culls of 
cucumbers are twisted, crooked and of round shape, but not yellow. No 
sale for yelbw. 

Cucumbers for pickling, cucumbers I14 inches long grade as No. 1, 2 
inches long as No. 2, and 3 inches long as No. 3. 

Cantaloupes. — No. 1. — Cantaloupes grade as No. 1 only when 45 can- 
taloupes just fill a standard crate 12x12x24. 

No. 2. — Odd sizes, larger or smaller, grade as No. 2. All cantaloupes 
must be well netted. No demand or sale for smooth or slick cantaloupes. 

Onions. — No. 1 onions are of medium size, averaging about three inches 
in diameter, small stems and of bright color. 

No. 2 are large and small mixed together, but of bright color and un- 
sprouted. Sprouted onions may be trimmed and sold as culls. 

RED RIVER VALLEY POTATO ASSOCIATION GRADES. 

No. 1 Eed Kiver Ohios — Shall be Chios grown in the Eed Eiver Valley, 
true to name,, reasonably free from scab, ripe, smooth and sound, clean 
according to season, sorted by running over a one and three-fourth-inch 
screen. 

No. 2 Eed Eiver Ohios — Shall be Early Ohios grown in the Eed Elver 
Valley, true to name, ripe and sorted over a one and one-half inch screen. 

Culls— Eed Eiver Ohios — Shall be Early Ohios, true to name, sound and 
clean, consisting of small potatoes sorted out of Nos. 1 and 2. 

Triumphs — Shall be graded the same as Ohios, except that No. 1 shall 
be sorted over a one and one-half inch screen. 

PEACH GRADES. 

Michigan Peach Grades. — Fancy XXXX. — Peaches 2 inches and up- 
wards in size, perfect in every respect, highly colored, carefully packed, 
suitable for long distance shipment. 



Grades of Fruits and Vegetables. 39 

XXX.— Peaches that are 1% to 2 inches in size, smooth, sound, well 
matured and colored, suitable for shipment long distances, well packed. 

XX. — Peaches that are II/2 to 1% inches in size. 

Culls. — All that are 1% inch and less in size. 

Texas and Arkansas Peach Grades. — Choice peaches shall be of uni- 
formly large size, the variety quoted, smooth and sound, free from blem- 
ish, carefully picked and packed in four or six-basket crates, fit for ship- 
ment to distant markets. 

No. 1 peaches of medium to large size, smooth and sound, packed same 
as choice, 

No. 2 peaches, uneven in size, some slightly over-ripe and defective and 
not good enough for No. 1, but that will stand shipment to nearby mar- 
kets. 

Pecans. — All pecans are graded according to size and softness of shells. 

No. 1. — Uniform large size, soft shells and shells well filled, free of 
worms. 

No. 2. — Medium size grade; must run even. 

No. 3. — Small or mixed lots, hard and soft shells. 

Pears. — No. 1. — Soft varieties for eating purposes, even size and good 
color. California packs in standard boxes containing 100 pears. 

No. 2. — Irregular sizes, but of good flavor and color. 

No. 3, — Cooking pears rank as No. 3 ; must be sound and free of worm- 
holes. 

Plums. — No. 1. — Plums are only salable as No. 1 grade. They must 
be of even size, good color and sound. No demand or sale for green, soft 
or wormy plums. 

Oranges. — No. 1 or fancy are of medium size, bright and sound. 

No. 2 grade consists of large or small sizes and Eussets. 

Grapes. — No. 1. — Large, well-colored bunches and sweet flavor. 

No. 2. — Small bunches, irregular sizes, but of sweet flavor. There is 
no grade for sour grapes or any demand. 

Tomatoes. — No. 1 tomatoes are of even size, smooth and without any 
blemish, and every tomato must show some color to be classed as No. 1 
or fancy. 

No. 2. — Irregular sizes, but well formed, showing some color. Culls of 
tomatoes or wormy ones are unsalable. 

Strawherries. — No. 1 grade is based as follows : Berries must be of good 
red color, firm, free from rot or blemish, boxes well filled, and berries laid 
even on surface of quart. 

No. 2. — Berries of lighter color than No. 1 grade, free from rot or 



4:0 Grades of Fruits and Vegetables. { 

blemish, good even run in size, may be some softer than No. 1, but firm 
enough to carry well to markets. 

No. 3. — Smaller size berries, both red and light color, of any variety, 
not suited to be placed with No. 2 or No. 1 grades, free from rot or extra 
soft berries, but may contain some berries softer than No. 1 or No. 2 
grade, boxes well filled. 

It should be the intention of all shippers and associations not to allow 
any berries to go in either of these grades that the boxes are not well filled, 
or that may contain enough berries of any description that would injure 
the balance of the fruit in the box. 

GKADES OF HAY AND STRAW ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL HAY ASSOCIATION. 

Choice Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy not mixed with over one-twen- 
tieth other grasses, properly cured, bright natural color, sound and well 
baled. 

No. 1 Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy with not more than one-eighth 
mixed with clover or other tame grasses, properly cured, good color, sound 
and well baled. 

No. 2 Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy not good enough for No. 1, not 
over one-fourth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, fair color, sound 
and well baled. 

No. 3 Timothy Hay — Shall include all' hay not good enough for other 
grades, sound and well baled. 

No. 1 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at 
least one-half timothy, good color, sound and well baled. 

No. 2 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and Clover mixed, with at 
least one-third timothy, reasonably sound and well baled. 

No. 1 Clover Hay — Shall be medium clover, not over one-twentieth other 
grasses, properly cured, sound and well baled. 

No. 2 Clover Hay — Shall be clover, sound, weli baled, not good enough 
for No. 1. 

No Grade Hay — Shall include all hay badly cured, musty, stained, 
threshed, or in any way unsound. 

Choice Prairie Hay — Shall be upland hay, of bright color, well cured, 
sweet, sound and reasonably free from weeds. 

No. 1 Prairie Hay — Shall be upland, and may contain one-quarter mid- 
land of good color, well cured, sweet, sound and reasonably free from 
weeds. 

No. 2 Prairie Hay — Shall be upland of fair color, or midland of good 
color, well cured, sweet, sound and reasonably free from weeds. 



Grades of Fruits and Vegetahles. \ 41 

No. 3 Prairie Hay — Shall be midland of fair color, or slough of good 
color, well cured, sound and reasonably free from weeds. 

No. 4 Prairie Hay — Shall include all hay not good enough for other 
grades, and not caked. 

No Grade Prairie Hay — Shall include all hay not good enough for other 
grades. 

No. 1 Straight Rye Straw — Shall be in large bales, clean, bright, long 
rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound and well baled. 

No. 3 Straight Rye Straw — Shall be in large bales, long rye straw, 
pressed in bundles, sound and well baled, not good enough for No. 1. 

No. 1 Tangled Rye Straw — Shall be practically free from chaff, of good 
color, sound and well baled. 

No. 2 Tangled Rye Straw — Shall be reasonably clean, may be stained, 
but not good enough for No. 1. 

No. 1 Wheat Straw — Shall be practically free from chaff, of good color, 
sound and well baled. 

No. 2 Wheat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, 
but not good enough for No. 1. 

No. 1 Oat Straw — Shall be practically free from chaff, of good color, 
sound and well baled. 

No. 2 Oat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but 
not good enough for No. 1. 



PART II. 



VEGETABLES. 



THE SOUTHERN VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

A Full Description of all Vegetables Grown for Home Use and Ship- 
ment to Northern, Eastern and Western Markets. 

Selections of Soils and Seeds; Fertilizers Required by Each Vegetable. 
Sowing the Seed. Cultivation. Protection Against Insects. 



VEGETABLES. 

A ' complete treatise on how to grow all vegetables for home use and 
shipment to Northern, Eastern and Western markets, comprising selection 
of soils, seeds, fertilizers, cultivation required by each vegetable, sowing 
the seeds, harvesting, and packing ready for market. 



Asparagus 

Beans (Bush) 

Beans (Pole) 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Cassava 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Collards 

Cucumbers 

Egg plant 

Garlic 

Horseradish 



Kale 

Kohlrabi 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Melons (Cantaloupes) 

Melons (Watermelons) 

Mustard 

Okra 

Onions (from seed) 

Onions (from sets) 

Oyster plants 

English peas 

Parsley 

Parsnips 



Peppers 

Potatoes (Irish) 

Potatoes (sweet) 

Pumpkins 

Radishes 

Ehubarb 

Eutabagas 

Spinach 

Squash 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Tobacco 



HOW TO GEOW, PACK AND SHIP ASPAEAGUS. ' 

Asparagus is one of the earliest spring vegetables and if properly culti- 
vated heads the list of all vegetables for profit; once established and taken 
care of, an asparagus bed is a constant source of income for over twenty 
years. It is a vegetable of excelient flavor, taste much resembling green 
peas, and it is preferred by many to peas and all other spring vegetables. 
Always in demand in every market at remunerative prices, even sold some- 
times at 35 cents per pound. In thirty years of trucking we have never 
known an overstocked market in the early spring, when the Southern 
grower can put this remunerative vegetable on the markets of the North, 
East and West. California is a competitor on this vegetable, but not a 
serious one, because the distance is too great to the principal markets, and 
the Southern grower has every advantage to grow, ship and sell asparagus 
in his own home market. Asparagus is not difficult to grow, and by fol- 
lowing our simple directions every truck grower and amateur can grow 
asparagus with gratifying results. 



46 



How to Grow, Pack and Ship Asparagus. 



SOIL. 

Asparagus will grow in almost any ground and yield large crops, even 
on stiff soils, but for market gardening a light sandy soil, fairly fertile, is 
much to be preferred, both for the sake of earliness in producing market- 
able shoots and for ease of cultivation. 

CULTIVATION AND PLANTING. 

As the asparagus crop will occupy the land for years after planting, the 
preparation should be thorough, beginning by deep plowing to bring the 
soil in as high a state of cultivation as possible. There are two distinct 
ways of propagating asparagus, either by seed or crowns ; both the seed and 
crowns can be secured from seedmen. To grow plants from seed, sow 
seed early in the spring in drills two inches deep and twelve inches apart; 
one ounce of seed will make about 500 plants. When plants are one year 
old transplant in rows five feet apart and eighteen inches apart in the 
rows. 

TO MAKE THE PERMANENT BED. 

Cover the soil four to five inches deep with well rotted manure and disc 
well, then plow as deep as possible, and fine with the harrow. Then with 
the plow turn furrows five feet apart, about six inches deep. Place the 
plants in these about eighteen inches apart, one in a place and with the 
roots well spread out. Then turn a light furrow back over them and level 
with the harrow by cross-harrowing. If the soil is dry and you have water, 




\: 




ABPARAGUS 

after you cover them run the water through the furrows before leveling. 
Give the surface a good dressing with manure each year. Cultivate often. 
When crowns or roots are used, plant as above in permanent bed in the 
fall months or any time through the winter. The advantage of using 
crowns is you will get some asparagus next spring. It is advisable, how- 
ever, to let the shoots grow one season before cutting any. This will give 
larger yields in following years. 



Hoiv to GroiD, Pack and 'Ship String Beans. 47 

FERTILIZERS. 

Well rotted barnyard manures are by far the best fertilizers for aspa- 
ragus. When commercial fertilizers must be used we would recommend 
fertilizers very rich in nitrogen and potash, to encourage strong and rapid 
growth. The common practice is to use large quantities of well rotted 
farmyard manure, preferably applied in the autumn as a top dressing. 
The heavy application of salt is of little practical value and is gradually 
being abandoned. Use per acre from 800 to 1,200 pounds of a fertilizer 
containing: nitrogen, 5 per cent; actual potash, 9 per cent; available phos- 
phoric acid, 7 per cent. 

HARVESTING. 

At the first signs of early spring watch your asparagus bed closely. 
When in places the surface shows slightly broken elevations take a long 
sharp knife, insert eight inches deep and cut the shoot, even before it 
shows out of the ground. There is a special asparagus knife or chisel sold 
by seedmen for that purpose. If the shoots are cut before showing they 
will be more tender, of white color tipped with a pink tinge, which adds 
much to the attractiveness and beauty of the asparagus shoots. 

PACKING AND SHIPPING. 

When asparagus has been cut, take it to the packing table and tie twelve 
shoots in a bunch if of good size; if not, place eighteen or even twenty- 
four shoots in the bunches. Asparagus should be packed in bushel boxes, 
marking on the outside of the box the number of bunches contained in th» 
package. 

In the early spring, even before the crop of asparagus is ready, growers 
should write to dealers in produce and commission merchants and state 
the amount of asparagus they will have for market. It is not unusual 
that the entire crop can be contracted for at pound rates, as dealers in 
all markets are always anxious to obtain early asparagus. Asparagus is 
a desirable money crop for both merchant and shipper. 



HOW TO GEOW, PACK AND SHIP STEING BEANS FOE PEOFIT. 

String beans have never been grown in sufficient quantities in the South 
for Northern demand, when properly packed and shipped upon reliable 
information. The demand in the early spring is practically unlimited, 
OS, beans are universally liked by rich or poor on account cif their rich 
flavor and succulent qualities. Beans can be shipped with profit in car- 
load lots to large markets and must be shipped by express to smaller 
markets. 



48 



lioiu to Grow, Pack and Ship String Beans. 



SOIL. 

Like most all vegetables, beans prefer a light, loamy and partially sandy 
soil. The land must be well drained and deeply plowed, and thoroughly 
harrowed before planting. 

SEED. 

From all accounts from all markets, the most popular, most productive 
and the most showy bean is the Ward well kidney wax bean, both flat and 




BEANS— (Bush) 

round podded; it is as far ahead of any other bean as the Elberta peach is 
ahead of all other peaches. There are other useful wax beans, such as the 
Golden Wax, Black Wax and Valentine, but the Wardwell stands at the 
head. The seeds come rather high in cost, but the outlay is justified by 
the results. Eound green potted beans are great favorites with some, but 
the flat green beans are almost unsalable at any time and positively un- 
salable when in competition with the wax varieties. We advise against 
planting flat green beans for profit in the future. We have had enough 
of them. It is true, the Mohawk, being very hardy and early green beans, 
find ready sale at first, but it don't last long enough to insure profit. It 
is more advisable to grow a bean that will sell throughout the season, and 
we recommend only the wax varieties and green round podded to our 
shippers. It is just as well to drop undesirable vegetables, as it costs as 
much to grow a poor vegetable as a desirable one. It pays better to con- 
form with the demand of the markets and grow only the best in demand. 



How to Grow, Pad- and Ship Siring Beans. 49 

FERTILIZERS. 

We have a weakness for home-made stable manure, because we know 
from experience it is the best of all manures, speaking from cost, value 
and every other standpoint, and we recommend it on all occasions. The 
truck grower that depends altogether on commercial fertilizers is like the 
farmer with scores of cows who uses condensed milk in cans for his coffee. 
Commercial fertilizers are valuable assistants, but should not be depended 
on altogether as your lands need humus just as your stable manure pro- 
vides. When planting beans use stable manure well rotted if possible; if 
not available use commercial fertilizer containing no less than 

Nitrogen 3 per cent. 

Potash _ 9 per cent. 

Soluble phosphoric acid 6 per cent. 

PLANTING. 

As we stated before, land must be well pulverized and prepared to plant 
beans. To attempt to grow beans on cloddy land is seed thrown away. 
Plant beans three feet apart in the row and drop beans to average a bean 
every six inches or less. It takes about two-thirds of a bushel to plant one 
acre. Beans should be planted as soon as the ground warms up in the 
spring and not before; to plant beans in cold, wet ground means loss, as 
the seed will rot. Cover lightly about two inches. 

CULTIVATION. 

Beans, like other truck, love frequent cultivation with horse cultivator 
and hoe. Hoeing should only be done when beans are dry, after rains or 
dews have dried off. 

HARVESTING. 

As soon as beans attain full size and the seed about one-half matured in 
the pod, they should be picked; if picked before they will shrivel up and 
become unsalable; if too old, too tough for use. Picking should be done 
every other day. 

PACKING. 

Beans, as a rule, carry best in small packages like the one-half bushel 
basket or one-third bushel boxes; if packed in larger crates they are apt to 
heat and spoil. We have always used the one-third bushel boxes. 

SHIPPING. 

Beans can be shipped in carlots, well iced, to all large markets, and by 
express to small markets in one-third, one-half bushel or hampers without 



50 



Pole Beans. 



ice. In barrels beans must be iced with cracked ice, as they are liable to 
heat and spoil. In carlots beans must be shipped in refrigerator cars, well 
iced and re-iced in transit. When your beans are ready for market, write 
to the dealers in the various markets for advice. Study distances and 
rates and ship only when conditions are favorable in certain markets. 
There is a heavy demand for string beans in every market in the early 
spring, and good money can be made on beans, when our directions are fol- 
lowed. We consider beans one of the most profitable of vegetables, realiz- 
ing often $300 per acre in a short time. 



POLE BEANS, 



Pole beans are grown by a good many Southern truckers as a very pro- 
fitable crop, but they are not grown as extensive as they ought to be; the 
labor of providing brush or poles for the beans to run on deters many from 










■o fl 







BEANS— (Pole) 

growing pole beans. As a rule in midsummer when other string beans in 
the Southern markets are scarce, pole beans are in eager demand at good 
prices. Pole beans can stand more heat and drouth than bush beans and 



Pole Beans. 51 

mature, green, crisp and tender pods when bush beans arc burned our, 
wilted and stale; besides pole beans are more prolific and last longer than 
bush beans, as they continue to bloom and set on young beans while the 
older beans are being picked. 

SOIL. 

Pole beans are not very choice about the right kind of soil; good pole 
beans can be grown on rocky, stony or gravely land, either clay or sandy 
land suits them; long roots and a vigorous constitution enables pole beans 
to succeed on soils and conditions when other beans would fail; they are 
rank feeders and appreciate liberal application of manure, containing a 
fair proportion of potash and nitrogen, either placed in the hills or broad- 
cast. 

SEED. 

There are many varieties of pole beans, either round or flat, wax or 
green. The Southern prolific a fiat green bean, the white creaseback a 
round silvery green bean. The best of wax pole beans for Southern plant- 
ing is Golden Wax Flageolet, a handsome, stringless half-round bean. 
The seed should not be covered over one inch deep when planted and the 
earth drawn around the hills after planting. 

CULTIVATION. 

After the ground is well prepared but little cultivation is required ; grass 
should be kept down while the plants are young; after the beans once run 
they will take care of themselves, as they shade the ground suificiently to 
keep down grass and weeds. 

HARVESTING. 

Pole beans should be picked every other day and while the pods are* 
young and tender. 

PACKING. ■' 

Pole beans can be packed in one-half bushel baskets, one bushel boxes 
or hampers, either by express or carlots; in carlots the cars must be well 
iced. 

MARKETS. 

All Southern cities, towns and villages offer good markets for pole beans 
in midsummer, as green stuff of any kind is quite scarce about that time; 
it would not be advisable to undertake to ship pole beans to Northern 
markets unless on orders, as usually those markets are supplied with home- 
grown. • 



52 



How to Grovj, Pack and Ship Beets. 



STAKING, 



Staking the beans can be done with poles or brush; garden fences may 
also be utilized as trellises. 



HOW TO GEOW, PACK AND SHIP BEETS. 

Beets are an extremely favorite vegetable with many consumers, on 
account of their nutritious qualities, fine flavor and pleasing taste. In the 
Northern States many barrels of beets are stored for winter use. As this, 
liowever, does not improve their eating qualities, our fresh beets being 
much more desirable, hundreds of cars and thousands of barrels are 
shipped each winter from the Southern States to Northern markets, find- 
ing a great demand and remunerative prices. As a matter of fact not 
enough are grown and shipped to supply the demand. The beets are easily 
grown and very productive, from $200 to $400 per acre having often been 




BEETS 

realized from a single acre by Southern truck growers, and we would ad- 
vise all of our readers to plant beets every fall and winter. Truck growers 
are so carried away by glowing accounts of profits on onions, tomatoes and 
potatoes that they often overlook a profitable vegetable like beets. This is 
not right, and truck growers should plant everything that is in demand for 
shipping. They can then discard any which prove unprofitable to their soil 
or locality. It is only by experimenting and catering to the demands of 
markets that we can achieve success. Beets will prove an important part 



Hoiv to Grow, Pack and Ship Beets. 53 

of mixed cars of vegetables, and should be grown for that purpose. All 
cities and towns in the North offer good markets for mixed cars of vege- 
tables, containing beets with other products. 

SOIL. 

The soil for beets should be rich, loose and deeply plowed, as beets are 
rank feeders. Manures of most any description can be applied in large 
quantities to great advantage, stable manures being preferable. 

PLANTING. 

After plowing deeply, harrow several times to settle the ground and pro- 
vide a fine seed bed. Sow in rows from 14 to 20 inches apart, cover the 
seed about one and a half inches deep. It takes eight pounds of seed to 
the acre. If a roller is run over the beds after planting, the seed will 
come up quicker and more regularly. It pays to roll. After the plants 
have five or six leaves, thin out, leaving a beet every six inches. You can 
also transplant beets, but this is not generally known or done. Cultivate 
between the rows. The best results have been obtained by cultivating once 
a week. 

SEEDS. 

There are several kinds of beets, all ha\1ng good and bad points. The 
very best all round beet is the dark Egyptian round turnip beet for ship- 
ping- purposes. The prices of seed range from 25 to 50 cents per pound. 

HARVESTING AND PACKING. 

As soon as the beets attain the size of a silver dollar, they are market- 
able. Pull and cut off part of the long roots and tie in bunches of six 
beets to the bunch. If larger, say double the size, place three in the 
bunches. Beets are quoted from 25 to 75 cents per dozen bunches. It is 
not advisable to allow the beets to grow too large, as they become unsal- 
able. We often read about some truck grower having grown beets to weigh 
12 or 15 pounds. Such beets are unsalable. The trade does not want 
large vegetables, either of beets, cabbage, potatoes or onions. Large speci- 
mens are fine to look at or for exhibition, but are not wanted by the trade 
in any market. Medium size vegetables always sell the best. Like rad- 
ishes, beets can be packed in crates or barrels, well ventilated. When beets 
are shipped by express, they should be packed in barrels with cracked ice, 
a layer of ice, then a layer of beets, using from 10 to 30 pounds of ice per 
^barrel, otherwise they will heat and spoil. 

For the market in the fall and winter beets are always shipped with the 
tops on. 



54 Cabbage as a Fall and Winter Crop. 

CABBAGE AS A FALL AND WINTER CROP. 

HOW TO GROW AND MARKET CABBAGE. 

It is hardly necessary for us to say anything in regard to profits on 
growing cabbage; it is a well established fact that cabbage is a staple crop, 
at most times in excellent demand and profits from $150 to $250 per acre 
have often been realized. 

The demand for cabbage in tlie Northern, Eastern and Western markets 
is constantly increasing with each year; hundreds and even thousands of 
cars of cabbage are annually disposed ofE in those markets at higher prices^ 
as a rule, than the Northern grower gets for his cabbage even after storing 
it for some time. The Southern cabbage arrives crisp and fresh from the 




CABBAGE 

Southern fields and is preferred by most consumers to old cabbage, the 
same as new potatoes outrank the old stock. Very seldom the price of 
cabbage at Southern loading stations falls below one cent a pound or $20 
per ton, where often the Northern grower is satisfied with even $G per 
ton during harvest time. It will be seen by the above that cabbage is 
an important and profitable crop to grow. 

The growing of cabbage is not difficult and by following our simple 
directions no one need be in fear of failure, unless natural unfavorable 
conditions should prevail. On strong land, well manured, an abundant 
crop may reasonably be expected. 

CABBAGE FOR FALL PLANTING. 

In the South cabbage seed for a fall crop or early winter is usually 
sown in July and August. Make the bed reasonably rich with well rotted 
stable manure or commercial fertilizers and sow the seed in drills or 
broadcast; cover very lightly and soak the beds well after planting the 
seed. Beds close to water are advisable; the young plant will decidedly 
do better if the beds are shaded from the hot midday sun ; the plant 



Cahbage as a Fall and Winter Crop. 55 

should be watered every evening and a very close watch should be kept 
for insects. Upon the slightest indication of insects the plants must be 
dusted with slug shot or tobacco dust, sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture 
or kerosene emulsion. How to dust, spray or make these emulsions is 
fully described in Part IV of this book. 

SOIL. 

Cabbage loves best a loose mellow soil, where some humus is in evi- 
dence; deep plowing, even subsoiling the land is of great benefit and in- 
creases the crop. 

SEEDS. 

There are many varieties of cabbage seeds offered for sale by the seed 
dealers, each one claiming some superiority for this particular strain, 
not possessed by others, and it is true that strains of cabbage, like Hen- 
derson, Succession, Surehead, All Summer, Autumn King, Danish, Bald- 
head and others are very valuable varieties. The oldest standards, of 
which these varieties are simply strains, are the jLate Flat Dutch, Late 
Drumhead, Early Flat Dutch and Early Drumhead. The main point 
is to avoid cheap seeds and depend only on the seeds furnished by reliable 
seed houses, as cabbage from unpedigreed seeds are apt to go to seed be- 
fore heading, and an entire crop may be lost by inferior seed. If cab- 
bage seed is reasonably fresh and fertile, three-quarters of a pound will 
produce 10,000 plants, or sufficient plants to plant one acre. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

The transplanting should be done carefully and if possible during a 
rainy spell of weather. If the ground is dry, in the absence of any rain, 
every plant must be waterered immediately after planting and the soil 
loosened around the plant the next day. Unless the weather is cloudy or 
rainy, in the late evening is the best time to transplant cabbage. Set the 
plants 20 inches apart in the rows and the rows 214 feet apart. 

CULTIVATION. 

Like all other vegetables, cabbage loves intense cultivation, frequent 
plowing. Harrowing with horse cultivator, followed by hoeing is essen- 
tial to success. Never allow your cabbage field to become hard. Soft 
ground means hard heads; hard ground, soft heads or no heads at all. 

FERTILIZERS. 

As far as fertilizing is concerned, we have never yet discovered the 
limit to which manuring may be profitably carried with this crop. It 



56 Cabbage as a Fall and Winter Crop. 

may be said, figuratively speaking, that cabbage would thrive in a well 
rotted manure pile. We would recommend a heavy dressing of stable 
manure, or at least 1,500 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre. Do 

not undertake to grow cabbage on land without fertilizers as failure must 
always be the rule. 

MARKETING CABBAGE. 

When cabbage shows signs of hardness it should be gone over and cut 
for market. A light hatchet or a heavy butcher knife are the best tools. 
A limited amount of cabbage may be shipped to small markets by express 
in sacks (we prefer the crates), but the bulk of the cabbage crop must 
always be shipped in car lots for profit. As a rule cabbage is shipped 
in refrigerator cars, well iced, as it is very apt to heat. Pack only in 
standard crates 20x30x28 inches. 

Shipped by express, cabbage may be shipped without ice in barrels, 
hampers or crates. It never pays to ship cabbage to any great distance by 
express, as charges are usually too high. 

CABBAGE AS AN EARLY SPRING CROP. 

The cultivation and planting of early cabbage does not differ materially 
from the cultivation of the late fall crop, only there is no special hurry 
for a fall crop, and the profits of an early spring crop depend more on 
the speed with which the crop is produced and placed as early as possible 
on the market. 

For this reason experienced gardeners use early quick-maturing varie- 
ties, such as Charleston, Wakefield, Early Flat Dutch, Early Drumhead 
and Winningstadt. These varieties are not as large as the late kinds 
and slow growing varieties, but most tender and of fine flavor. 

For soils, fertilizers and harvesting read our article on cabbage in the 
preceding article, as the mode of procedure to grow spring cabbage is 
about the same as fall and winter cabbage. The main point is to secure 
strong and vigorous plants for early spring planting, when danger of 
heavy freezes are over; light frosts do not injure young cabbage plants in 
the field. 

To obtain cabbage plants the market gardener makes what is termed a 
cold frame in which he sows his cabbage seed during December, January 
and February and which can be covered up by boards, cloth or glass dur- 
ing the coldest nights. No artificial heat is required except further north ; 
in fact, cabbage will do better in a lower temperature than in a high one, 
as a rule. 



How to Grow, Pack and Ship Carrots. 57 

. HOW TO MAKE AND OPERATE A COLD FRAME FOR CABBAGE PLANTS. 

Select any piece of ground well drained and handy to water, and, if 
possible, sheltered from the cold north wind by a house, barn, fence or 
hedge. Plow or spade the ground. Now get some boards 1x12 ; set up 
on edge east and west parallel 4 or 5 feet apart. Set the north board on 
top of the ground ; lower the south board four inches in the ground ; this 
gives you a slope to the south. Get some short boards to close the ends; 
bank up the soil or manure on the outside all around. Nail some slats 
across the top every four feet to hold the frame firm. Now get some 
good, rich soil from your barnyard, not too strong, and sift this into your 
frame, so as to raise the side four inches above the outside soil. This 
insures drainage after heavy rains. Eake and pulverize well. Now sow 
your seed across the bed in drills six inches apart, covering lightly; keep 
well watered, but not too much. The advantage you have by sowing in 
drills, it makes stockier and better plants and you can always count your 
plants by counting the rows and plants in one row. Do not cover the 
frame at all unless severe freezes are predicted. Watch the weather re- 
port; if reported that the temperature may fall ten degrees below freez- 
ing, which means 22 above zero, cover up; keep covered until danger is 
past. Never uncover in hrigJit sunlight. Cabbage in the field and beds 
can stand 20 above zero; any below this temperature will invariably kill 
it. For cover you can use glass sash, domestic, old sacks, doubled and 
sewed together, or boards across the top, covered with manure or hay; be 
careful not to leave any opening for the cold wind. 

Two-thirds of a pound of seed will make sufficient plants for one acre. 
When you sow seeds you can determine how long you may need your 
frames or how many, to give you sufficient plants for your requirements. 
Thirty-two rows across the beds or a cold frame 16 feet long and 5 feet 
across should furnish plants for one acre or even more. 

The earliness of the crop will depend on the condition of the weather 
and the care that is bestowed on the plants in the frame and in the field, 
after the plants are set out; remember plenty manure and plenty cultiva- 
tion are the watchwords for an early cabbage crop. 



HOW TO GEOW, PACK AND SHIP CARROTS. 

Carrots are easily grown, similar to beets or radishes, and are a profit- 
able crop for shipping to the Nortliern, Eastern and Western markets 
during the winter months. 



58 



How to Oroiv, Pack and Ship Carrots. 



SOIL. 



Carrots succeed best in a rich sandy loam where the soil is sufficiently 
loose, that the roots may go deep and develop straight and tender carrots. 

SEEDS. 

The half-long varieties, as the Danvers, Intermediate, Half-long Luc 
Carrot, St. Valerie Carrot, are favorable kinds for market gardeners. 
The seed should be sown in drills 18 inches apart in the rows, covered 
very lightly, and a roller passed over the seed after planting. 

FERTILIZER. 

To grow carrots quickly, tender and palatable some manure or commer- 
cial fertilizers should be used. Land that was manured by stable manure 




CARROTS 

the previous year is the best, as carrots, like Irish potatoes, do not take 
kindly to fresh stable manure; it has the tendency to make the carrots 
scabby; either prepared commercial fertilizers or cotton seed meal, at the 
rate of 800 pounds to the acre, makes an acceptable manure for carrots. 

CULTIVATION. 

Culiivation should be done with the hoe and hand-cultivators between 
the rows. Like all other vegetables, carrots appreciate liberal and often 
cultivation. 

HARVESTING. 

After the carrots have attained the size of a finger or a little larger, 
they should be pulled up and tied in bunches, each bimch containing a 
dozen carrots and shipped in bushel crates, hampers or barrels by express; 



Cassava. 



59 



if shipped in barrels, carrots must be well iced with cracked ice in layers. 
The demand for carrots is limited and we do not advise to grow or ship 
them in any large quantities, yet as a small crop they have proven very 
profitable. 



CASSAVA. 



Cassava is a most valuable crop as a Southern forage crop and food 
for man and stock. Five tons of cassava roots may be grown on an acre 
of land that would not produce 20 bushels of corn. Cassava, when dried, 
will give 700 pounds to the ton; 5 tons will produce 3,500 pounds dried 
cassava gathered from one acre. In its dry state cassava will keep for 




PASSAVA 

years; in the green state it is fed to cattle, hogs and poultry. Tapioca is 
made from cassava; therefore it is also used for human food in the 
shape of pudding, tasting similar to the sweet potato pudding. Fed to 
cows, it increases the milk and butter, and hogs may be fattened as quickly 
and much cheaper on cassava as on corn. Boots have been produced six 
feet long and six inches in diameter, weighing 25 pounds. 

SOILS. 

Cassava may be planted on the poorest sandy land and no fertilizers 
are required. 

PLANTING. 

The stalks are planted like sugar cane in 4-inch lengths and the roots 
are used for feed. It should be planted in February or March and har- 



CO 



The Growing of Cauliflower in the South. 



vested in August and September or late fall by simply plowing the roots 
out. Every farmer should plant a patch; it beats peanuts, ehufas or any 
root crop. Cassava will yield 600 pounds of pure starch to the ton, su- 
perior to corn starch, and sell at double the price. There are large fac- 
tories in Florida where starch is prepared from cassava. 



THE GROWING OF CAULIFLOWEE FOR PROFIT IN THE 

SOUTH. 

It is only of late years that the Southern gardeners have paid much, if 
any, attention to the growing of cauliflower. Aside from its commercial 
value as a profitable vegetable for shipping purpose to Northern markets, 
it should be grown by all farmers, if only for their own use, for it is 
doubtful if there is a single vegetable that is more healthful, nutritious, 
and as well liked by all as cauliflower, when properly grown and prepared 
for table use. Owing to the high price of the seeds and general supposi- 
tion that cauliflower is difficult to raise, very little of it is grown in the 
South in comparison to other vegetables. These, however, are mistaken 
ideas. It is true the seed often costs as high as $40 per pound, but the 








OAirLIFLOWP:R 

seeds are small and even an ounce costing $3 will produce from 1500 to 
2000 plants, and the profit from one ounce is frequently $200, so any- 
one can see the cost of the seed is of small consideration. Then, again, 
cauliflower is as easily grown as cabbage, and we will proceed to give such 
directions as will enable anyone to, grow cauliflower successfully. 

The culture of cauliflower is similar to cabbage, but should be more 
thorough and ground made very rich. It delights in a rich, moist soil, 
and in dry seasons should be abundantly watered, especially when heading. 

SEEDS. 

There are several kinds of cauliflower, and the seeds of Early Danish 
Snowball, Henderson's Early Snowball, and the Extra Early Dwarf Er- 



How to Grow, Pack and Ship Celery. 61 

furt axe as good as any for beginners. Be very careful from whom you 
buy the seeds. Patronize only reputable seed houses. 

SEEDBEDS. 

The Southern gardeners can sow the seeds about July and August in 
beds and continue to sow in succession until October. Make a well pre- 
pared and manured bed, sow the seeds in the usual way and protect the 
bed with partial shade during midday, as the most difiBcult part of raising 
cauliflower is in growing plants; constant attention must be paid to the 
beds. It must be kept well watered and guarded against insects. There 
is a certain moth that flies at night and deposits an egg in the crown of 
the young plants, thereby ruining the same, as the young grub will eat 
out the heart. This can be avoided by driving stakes one foot high or 
more all around the edges of the bed and covering the entire bed and sides 
with mosquito bar. We would recommend this to all growers, as it affords 
a complete protection against insects. 

PLANTING. 

The ground for cauliflower must be well prepared by deep plowing and 
thorough harrowing, and it can not be made too rich. A liberal applica- 
tion of well rotted manure is probably the best; when commercial fertili- 
zers must be used, we recommend no less than one thousand pounds of 
cotton seed meal, or any other high grade fertilizer, per acre, broadcast in 
the rows or hills. Wlien the plants are of good size transplant with care 
and set them 18 inches apart in the rows, and make the rows 2^/2 feet 
apart. The young plants must be frequently watered until firmly estab- 
lished. The horse cultivators and hoes must be kept agoing. This stim- 
ulates growth and serves to retain the moisture. When heading some 
gardeners tie the outside leaves loosely over the head to protect it from the 
sun, which we also advise. When ready for market cut the heads, leaving 
a few of the leaves on each head. Pack in barrels and crates carefully. 
State on outside how many are in eacli barrel or crate. 



HOW TO GROW, PACK AND SHIP CELERY. 

There is scarcely a vegetable that meets with a more ready reception 
by all epicures than celery. Its sedative properties, pleasant taste, aro- 
matic flavor, make it a necessity to the meal of the poor as well as the 
rich. No dinner table is complete without the golden stalks of celery 
presiding over other good things to eat; its the bouquet and the finishing 
touch of all feasts. 



62 



How to Grow, Pack and Ship Celery. 



As celery can be grown in the South nearly every month of the year by 
following some simple directions, it is strange that thousands of crates 
of celery should be imported to the South every season from Colorado, 
Michigan and other States, Southern truck growers should begin to be- 



% -.l'''- 





CELERY 



stow considerable attention on the growing of celery, as it is a money crop 
and always in good demand in every large and small market at fair and 
remunerative prices, 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS. 

Celery succeeds best on low, black, rather heavy soil, yet the ground 
must be subject to thorough drainage. Fertilizer containing a fair pro- 
portion of nitrogen, actual potash and phosphoric acid is required; well 
rotted barnyard manure is therefore the best. Some truck growers apply 
cotton seed meal after planting, with good results. As far as fertilizers 
are concerned the nature of ground must be taken into consideration and 
some experience will be the best teacher, 

SEED, 

The Golden Self-Bleaching Celery seems to be the favorite variety with 
most all the truckers, yet there are other valuable varieties, such as Giant 
Pachal, White Plume, Perfection, Heartwell and the Large White Solid, 



How to Grow, Pack and Ship Celery. 63 

HOW TO GROW PLANTS. 

Prepare the seed bed by deep spading or plowing, well manured — if 
procurable, use chicken droppings and ashes, not too strong. Have the 
soil well stirred and in first-class tilth. Sow your seed broadcast or in 
drills six inches apart ; cover lightly and keep the surface moist until plants 
show, then water at regular intervals. In the summer months the young 
plants must be partly shaded from the midday sun. During the winter 
months the plant beds must be boarded all around so they can be covered 
up during severe cold weather. Celery is not injured by frosts, but 
severe freezes, say 14 degrees below freezing point, would kill it in the 
beds or field if unprotected. 

There is a contention among gardeners whether celery should be trans- 
planted on a level or in trenches. Some claim one way the best and some 
the other. We have come to the conclusion that when the ground is low 
it is best to plant strictty on a level; if the ground is moderately elevated 
in trenches. Plant the rows three feet apart, the plants just six inches 
apart in the rows; if possible transplant only in the evening; water freely; 
next morning loosen the ground around the plants with a hoe or rake; 
repeat this daily until plants are firmly established. Keep well culti- 
vated for six weeks to stimulate growth. Now the first handling begins; 
this should never be done when the celery is wet from either rain or dew. 
Handling consists in taking the plants in the left hand and drawing the soil 
around the plants to make the plants grow upright and keep them in that 
position; bleaching then commences, (some gardeners tie the bunches with 
string or grass). One or two weeks later, when the plants have grown taller, 
plow out the middle towards the celery, hut not on the celery; now again 
take the plants in 5^our left hand, pack the dirt firmly around, being very 
careful not to get any dirt between the leaves or in the crown of the plants ; 
after this, take a hoe and draw the soil evenly to the plants from each 
side, always leaving a small portion of the tops exposed ; run your sweep 
through the middle and sweep out middle perfectly clean. Your cultiva- 
tion of celery is now done, and your celery should begin bleaching to a 
rich golden white. 

HARVESTING AND PACKING. 

Take a spade and commence at the end of row and dig out the celery; 
do not allow it to lay in the sun for any length of time. Eemove to the 
packing shed. Now trim off roots with a sharp knife leaving the butt 
end to a point; remove all irregular distorted outside leaves. Some gar- 
deners wash the celery. We do not believe in washing any vegetable be- 



64 



IIoiv to Grow, Pach and Ship Oucumhers. 



fore shipping, as it causes rot to appear much sooner than if left un- 
washed. If you follow our directions your celery will be nice and clean 
without washing. Now tie evenly one dozen plants or stalks into a solid 
bunch, using strong twine for the purpose; pack in crates, baskets or bar- 
rels; if shipped by express cracked ice must be used in the barrels; by 
freight celery must be shipped in well iced refrigerator cars. Celery sells 
from 40 cents to $1.50 per dozen bunches in about all markets and it is 
a highly profitable crop, which yields often several hundred dollars per 
acre. By following the above plain directions anyone, even the beginner, 
■can grow successfully celery for profit. 



HOW TO GEOW, PACK AND SHIP CUCUMBEES FOE PEOFIT. 

Quite a portion of the liuman family have but little use for cucumbers; 
this fact, however, seems to intensify the craving and preference of the 
other portion of the human family for this unpopular and popular vege- 
table. Lovers of cucumbers will pay more for this particular product 
than any other, especially if they are inclined to be scarce. 

It is not uncommon to ?eG cucumbers quoted as high as three dollars 




CUCUMBERS 

per dozen or twenty-five cents apiece throughout the winter months. In 
winter a few shipments arrive in the Northern markets from the extreme 
southern part of Florida, and of late Old Mexico furnishes some, as cu- 
cumbers have no use whatever for Jack Frost and will only mature below 
the frost line. The largest part offered in the Northern markets are ob- 
tained from hotbeds and hothouses. 

Surrounding large cities in the East and Middle States are thousands 
of skilled gardeners who almost make a specialty of growing cucumbers 



IIov: to Groir, Pack and Ship Cucumbers. <io 

under glass with artificial heat, and no small amount of money represents 
this industry in the United States. The city of Boston leads, with Cin- 
cinnati a close second, in furnishing cucumbers for winter market. 

As soon as the weather gets warm the cucumbers, being confined in 
frames and needing air, refuse to produce fruit. Tiien is the time when 
the Southern cucumbers begin to arrive, to find a friendly and eager mar- 
ket, for in the spring and early summer the demand for cucumbers is 
enormous. It all depends on the supply. Prices will climb sky high if 
the market is short. 

The demand for cucumbers is limited all through the months of Jan- 
uary, February, March and April, but in May, should the weather assume 
summer proportions, the demand grows immense and hardly any market 
can get enough of them. It is indeed fortunate for Southern growers 
that they are in a position to furnish the cukes in May and June in un- 
limited quantities; in fact, our season is then at its height, and cars of 
cucumbers are in demand in all large cities, and express shipments in 
small cities throughout the country. 

Under our own observation we have seen a car of cukes of over five 
hundred bushels unloaded the first part of June in Chicago, delivered on 
South Water street at 7 a. m., and at 8 a. m. not a cuke was left, and at 
the time we were informed that several cars could have been disposed of 
easily the same day. 

Cucumbers are very easily raised; tliere is hardly a vegetable that will 
stand neglect and abuse as much as cucumbers; at the same time there is 
no plant that will appreciate and respond quicker to diligent, thorough 
and frequent cultivation. 

Cucumbers love a loose, sandy loam, well fertilized, either with well 
rotted stable manure or cotton seed meal. Wliere cotton seed meal is used 
apply one thousand pounds to the acre broadcast; when used in hills it 
must be well mixed with the soil, as it has a tendency to bum out the 
young plants where this is not done. The seed can be planted in drill? 
about six feet apart or hills about five feet apart each way. Two pounds 
of seed will plant an acre. 

Cucmmbers may also be planted in drills and cultivated in the shape of 
a ridge; this has been our favorite method with good results. • 

As soon as plants show third and fourth leaves the hoe and cultivator 
should be applied at least once a week until the vines begin to run, when 
no further cultivation is necessary. The vines should never be disturbed. 
Ill srathcring !he crop great cane should be exercised in not stepping oil 



66 How to Grow, Park and Ship Collards. 

the vines. The fruit should be pinched off with thumb and forefinger; 
never pulled off, as the pulling disturbs the vine. 

The best size is from six to eight inches in length; the small round 
cucumbers, called culls, should be pulled off the vines and thrown away, 
as they are not fit to be shipped. All cucumbers shipped must be green; 
never ship a yellow cucumber or any that show the least yellow. 

The question of seed is a mere matter of taste. Some prefer the Long 
Green and some the White Spine. We have found the Long Green, on 
account of its length, undesirable, because it does not pack well. We have 
little use for the White Spine, because it has a tendency to be too white; 
the market wants a medium dark green cucumber, and we use a hybrid 
between the Long Green and White Spine called Talby's Hybrid cucum- 
ber or New Orleans Market, the Klondike or Davis, the seed of which can 
be obtained from any reliable seed house. 

In the early part of the season it is advisable to ship in one-third bushel 
boxes, containing about three dozen; later on, when cucumbers become 
more plentiful, one bushel boxes should be used, especially if they are in- 
tended for car lots. 

The cultivation of cucumbers should be encouraged all over the South. 
There is no apparent reason why one dollar should be sent out of the 
State for pickles. Every truck growing community should have in con- 
nection with shipping a canning plant on the co-operative plan, using up 
the surplus when too late to ship to advantage. Cucumbers, beans, toma- 
toes and various other products could then be utilized in place of going to 
waste. This outlet would also serve to keep markets from becoming over- 
stocked, as there would be no necessity of crowding stuff into where it is 
not wanted. 

In Part VI of this book, The Modern Guide, will be found complete in- 
structions how to pickle cucumbers for commercial use and also how to can 
and preserve all fruits or vegetables either for home use or for market. 



HOW TO GROW, PACK AND SHIP COLLARDS. 

Collards are similar to cabbage, with the exception that collards do not 
form heads, simply growing into loose leaves, which are used like cab- 
bage and spinach as greens during the fall, winter and spring months. Col- 
lards, wh^en cooked properly, make very favorite greens with many people, 
especially in the South; the demand is, however, limited, and it is not a 
vegetable that we would advise to grow to any large extent for shipping 
purposes, as mustard, spinach, beet tops and turnip tops are preferred by 
most people for greens. 



Sweet Corn. 



n 



PLANTING. 



Sow the seeds in drills 2i/^ feet apart in the rows; hoe and cultivate 
with horse cultivator, keeping the ground loose and mellow. The ground 




COLLARDS 

should be enriched by either stable manure or commercial fertilizers, about 
800 pounds to the acre. 

HARVESTING. 

When the leaves are grown and still tender cut the coUards and tie in 
bunches; ship in bushel crates, hampers or barrels. When shipped in bar- 
rels by express, cracked ice must be distributed throughout the barrel or 
else the collards will heat, turn yellow and become unsalable. 



SWEET CORN. 



HOW TO PLANT^ HARVEST AND SHIP. 

The cultivation and growing sweet or field corn as roasting ears for 
table use is strictly an American innovation. The pleasant flavor succu- 
lent, starchy substance, with fresh creamery butter added, make the ears 
of corn a great favorite to native Americans, both North and South, and 
even to the foreigner who once partakes of the rich and nutritious dish. 

The demand in the early spring is practically unlimited, and the South- 
ern grower is enabled by his early advantages to place sweet corn or field 
com, as roasting ears, on the table,i of the Northern consumers about the 
time the Northern farmer or truck grower plants his crop of corn in the 
field. 

In large markets carloads of sweet corn could be disposed of at highly 
remunerative prices, and the cultivation of the corn should be encouraged 
and practised by Southern growers. 

The only diflSculty in growing and shipping sweet corn is the boll worm, 



()8 



Siveet Corn. 



which infests the end of the ear. There is no remedy for this except to 
destroy the moth that deposits the egg in the corn in the spring. 

In transit the green corn is very apt to heat, unless it is either shipped 
in small packages, well ventilated, or shipped on ice. 



SOIL. 



Like other corn, sweet corn needs either strong land or tl>e land must 
be well manured; as earliness is one of the requirements, manure must be 





SWEET CORN 

applied very liberally; either stable manure or commercial fertilizers, at 
the rate of 1000 pounds to the acre, should be applied, followed by ciean 
cultivation. 

PLANNING. 

As soon as all danger of frost is over, plant the corn in drills, the rows 
21/2 feet apart; after the corn is 12 inches high thin out to a stand, leav- 
ing a stalk about every 12 inches in the rows. 

SEEDS. 

While the common field corn makes excellent roasting ears, most garden- 
ers use small special varieties which are sweeter and also much earlier. 
Adam's Extra Early is a standard favorite variety; so is the Evergreen 
Sugar corn; the Improved Leaming, Stowell's Sugar and Mexican June 
corn. 

HARVESTING. 

In gathering sweet corn one should be very careful not to gather it too 
green nor too ripe; either stage makes the corn undesirable. The best 
corn is gathered when it is nearly full grown and still slightly milky; 
corn of that description is always salable. 



Egg Plants. 



GO 



SHIPPING. 

Corn shipped by express should be in open bushel crates or hampers. 
If shipped in barrels, the com must be well iced with cracked ice all the 
way through, as there is great danger of heating in transit. In carlots 
sweet corn can be shipped only in refrigerator cars, well iced, and re-iced 
in transit. 



EGG PLANTS. 

HOW TO GROW, PACK AND SHIP. 

Anyone familiar with growing tomatoes would find no difficulty in pro- 
ducing egg plants for market, as the planting and cultivation are about 
the same. During the past decade the demand for egg plants has been 




EGG PLANT 

steadily increasing, until the shipping of egg plants from the South, espe- 
cially from Florida, to Northern markets has become a remunerative in- 
dustry. It is therefore advisable for Southern truck growers to grow egg 
plants for market. By planting a variety of truck, the grower has some- 
thing to ship every day during the shipping season, and he also finds 
which pay the best for future operations. 

SOILS. 

Medium sandy soil, enriched by liberal manuring, give the best results 
for egg plants. The soil should he deeply plowed and placed in as good 
condition as possible. Egg plants planted in rich loose ground grow fast 
and produce fine specimens. 

SEEDS. 

The large purple or New Orleans Market, or the New York Market are 



70 K-oIilrnbl. 

both showy and very disirable varieties. Two ounces of seed will produce 
1000 plants; 12 ounces of seed is sufficient to plant one acre. 

SOWING AND PLANTING. jl'^i.: 

The seed should be sown in hotbeds in December and January. (See 
Hotbeds, How to Make, in Part IV of this book.) When a couple of 
inches high they should be transplanted into another frame, so that the 
plants may become stronger and robust. When warm enough, generally 
during March, the plants can be planted in the open ground, about two 
and a half feet apart. In the extreme South, as South Florida or South 
Texas, egg plants may be set out earlier, but frost would invariably kill 
egg plants; even low temperature and cold winds injure the young plants; 
therefore caution must be exercised in the early spring. It is safer to 
plant late and hasten the crop with liberal manuring and cultivation. 

FERTILIZERS. 

Egg plants are rank feeders and appreciate well rotted stable manure; 
land that was manured with stable manure the year previous is apt to 
make a fine crop. Where stable manure is scarce, commercial fertilizers 
containing a fair percentage of nitrogen and phosphoric acid is advisable, 
but must be applied quite heavily, at least at the rate of 1500 pounds to 
the acre. This can be applied in the hill or broadcast; if applied in the 
hill the fertilizer must be well mixed with the soil. 

SHIPPING. 

When egg plants attain their growth and become a dark purple color, 
they are ready for the market. Pack in bushel crates, hampers or barrels^ 
no ice being required when shipped by express; in carlots egg plants must 
be iced to preserve a fresh appearance. 



KOHLEABI. 



Kohlrabi, or turnip cabbage, represents a curious variety of the turnip 
and cabbage families in which the reserve material of the plant is stored 
in a tuber-like enlargement of the stem just above the surface of the soil 
rather than beneath. Although, strictly speaking, it does not belong to 
the roots and tubers, it is so similar to them that it has been included in 
this discussion. Kohlrabi is considered best in the early summer, when it 
is still young and tender, but it is commonly found on the market until 
late fall. In flavor it is more delicate than either turnips or cabbage, 



Garlic. 71 

though it resembles them more nearly in this respect than it does other 
common vegetables. 

Kohlrabi is very popular with the European population of our country 
and esteemed highly by the Germans. 

It is used for soups, or prepared in the same manner as cauliflower. 
For late fall and winter use it should be sown from the end of July till 
the middle of October; for spring use, during January and February. 
When the young plants are one month old transplant them in rows one 
foot apart, and about the same distance in the rows. They also grow 
finely if sown broadcast and thinned out when young, so that the plants 
are not too crowded, or, they may be sown in drills, and cultivated the 
same as rutabagas. 

When kohlrabi is the size of a dollar or larger, it is ready for market; 
it is more tender when of small size than if left to grow too large. We 
believe kohlrabi can be made a most profitable crop for the Southern gar- 
dener when shipped in the fall and winter season, tied in bunches like 
turnips. We would advise Southern growers to give this vegetable a fair 
test. It can be grown about like turnips or rutabagas and it makes a fine 
feed for milk cows. 

The Early White Vienna variety of kohlrabi is the best kind for South- 
em planting. 



GAELIC. 



HOW TO GROW^ HARVEST AND SHIP GARLIC. 

The various members of the onion family are commonly used for flavor- 
ing purposes, and garlic may be said to stand at the head with many of 




GARLIC 

our citizens, especially those of Italian, French, Spanish and Mexican 
origin. Garlic is salable in most markets in its dry state at very fair 
profit, from 5 to even 10 cents per pound being paid for the same. 



72 Garlic. 

Garlic is easily grown, but like the entire onion family thrives best in 
loose, rich soil. 

PLANTING. 

Garlic may be planted in the South from September until March first. 
Garlic stands cold better than any other garden product, and we have 
never had a crop killed entirely by cold. Garlic is best planted in rows 
15 to 18 inches apart and 6 inches apart in the rows. It can be grown 
without transplanting after the small bulbs have once been planted. 

SETS. 

There are two varieties of garlic — the Mexican, or small, and the Italian, 
or large; the difference in yield and strength, as well as ease of planting 
is vasUy in favor of the Italian. Pods of the Mexican are too small 
to weigh on the ordinary scales, but we liave raised the Italian that a sin- 
gle pod weighed a pound. 

The strength of the two varieties are in favor of the Italian, three to 
one. The Italian is easily seperated into smaller pods, when one desires 
to plant, and does not lose weight by evaporation like the Mexican. Both 
varieties are propagated by planting the divided pods, about six inches to 
a foot apart — the latter distance being preferable, as it makes it easier to 
work with the hoe. 

The Italian has small bulbs at the root of the matured bulb that will 
reproduce, that the Mexican has not. The Italian forms a seed stem that 
blasts, and if this seed stem is cut out early, it makes a much larger bulb. 

SOIL AND FERTILIZERS. 

The soil- best adapted to raising garlic is a rich sandy loam, and as gar- 
lic — like most vegetables — are not averse to fertilizing, a good amount of 
well rotted fertilizer mixed in the drill with the natural soil increases the 
yield with profit. 

In the absence of stable manure, commercial fertilizer must be used, 
containing a fair percentage of nitrogen and potash, at the rate of 1500 
pounds to the acre. This fertilizer may be applied broadcast or applied 
in the drills, well mixed with the soil. 

INSECTS. 

Garlic is almost insect-proof ; except the root maggot on old land, hardly 
any animal will touch it, and from this point garlic is easily grown, be- 
cause its own flavor is its protection. 

Garlic will also stand drouth well, better than too much moisture; there- 
fore the land upon which the garlic is grown should be well ckaiD*""" 



Horse Radish. 73 

HARVESTING. 

When the bulbs have attained their growth, which is indicated by the 
tops turning yellow and falling down, garlic is ready to pull. It should 
be gathered in dry weather, braided in strings about 4 feet long and hung 
up to dry completely in a barn or shed. In shipping, barrels, crates or 
sacks may be used. 



HORSE RADISH. 



HOW TO GROW AND SHIP. 



Owing to the peculiar flavor of horse radish as an appetizer, this root 
is very extensively grown in more Northern localities; in the extreme 
South we made many failures until we planted a bed on the north side 
of a barn, and the partial shade and rich surrounding seemed to agree with 
horse radish and we had a fine bed in the fall; in the open field it would 
invariably succumb to the hot July and August sun. 

SOIL AND FERTILIZERS. 

Next to a well rotted manure pile, horse radish loves a loose soil, highly 
manured, and where good rich stable manure can not be obtained, we can 
not advise the cultivation of the root. Commercial fertilizer will cause 




HORSK HAIUSII 

the plants to grow to tops, the roots requiring a humus in the soil, only 
present when stable manure is used extensively. 

PLANTING. 

Horse radish is best propagated by small pieces of roots cut 1 or 3 inches 
long and planted 12 inches in the row and the rows 2 feet apart. After 
the roots are well established, very little cultivation is required; some 
weeds to shade the ground is no detriment to the plants. 

HARVESTING. 

When the roots are about 1 inch in diameter or more, the horse radish 



74 



Leek. 



is ready for market. Plow or dig out the roots with a spade; cut in 
lengths about 18 inches long, tie in bunches, and ship to market in bar- 
rels or crates. Wherever horse radish will flourish and produce nice roots, 
it becomes a highly profitable crop and should be cultivated by truck gar- 
deners. 



LEEK. 

Leek is also a species of the onion family, highly esteemed for flavoring 
soups and stews. The demand is limited and it should not be grown in 
large quantities. 

Leek should be sown broadcast and transplanted, when about six to 
eight inches high, into rows a foot apart, and six inches apart in the rows. 




LEEK 

Should be planted at least four inches deep. They require to be well cul- 
tivated in order to secure large roots. Sow in October for winter and 
spring use, and January and February for summer. 

Large London Flag is the kind most generally grown. 

Large Carentan — This is a French variety which grows to a very large 
size. 

Large Eouen — A French variety introduced here some years ago, which 
does well in our climate and seems to be particularly adapted to our soil 
It grows shorter than either London Flag or the Carentan and much 
stouter than either of them. As a market variety it can not be excelled. 

HARVESTING. 

Leek should be pulled before the tops show any yellow and still green; 
tie in bunches and ship like turnips or radishes. 



LETTUCE. 

HOW TO GBOW^ PACK AND SHIP. 

The cultivation of lettuce truly belongs to diversification and no truck 
garden is complete unless lettuce is given a prominent place, especially in 
the Southern gardens. Besides an excellent demand for lettuce in all 
Southern cities, there is a constant demand for lettuce in all Northern 
cities and towns throughout the months of November, December, January, 




LETTrOE 

February and March. Many instances have been reported where $300 
have been realized from the sale of lettuce from one acre. About all mar- 
kets North or South quote lettuce from 25 cents to $1 per dozen heads, 
markets fluctuating according to supply and demand. The growing of 
lettuce is very simple, and success is easily obtained by following a few 
of the minor directions. 

SOIL. 

The soil for lettuce should be a rich, dark, mellow loam, and if in- 
clined to be slightly sandy it will be better than if too heavy. The ground 
must be well drained, and if level is better made into narrow beds, so that 
water from heavy rains will run off quickly. 

FERTILIZING. 

As neitber fruit nor seeds are desired, and crispness and quality depends 
entirely on the rapidity of its growth, the fertilizer should contain a large 
proportion of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Of the commercial fertilizer 
1000 pounds should be used per acre under all conditions ; well rotted barn- 
yard manure liberally applied is the most desirable fertilizer of all. 

PLANTING. 

Some gardeners simply broadcast the seed in beds and thin out a reason- 
able stand; others, and which is the more proper way, sow the seeds in 
beds and then transplant in rows or on beds, ten inches each way for the 



7G 



Cantaloupes. 



larger kinds, less for the smaller. It is desirable and adds to quicker 
growth if cultivated frequently with hoe or rake. 

SEEDS. 

Nearly every truck gardener has favorite varieties. We have, however, 
by actual experience, found that the Big Boston Market gives the best 
results for shipping purposes, as it is a fine, showy cabbage lettuce, very 
hardy and of quick growtli. Lettuce should be planted every month until 
March for shipping purposes, as after Marcli only home market can b*i 
depended upon. 

PACKING. 

When lettuce attains its growth, that is, before it becomes tough and 
discolored, it should be cut with a sharp knife, some of the outer leaves 
removed, and th^n packed with cracked ice in barrels. Always state number 
of dozen, on the outside of barrels, as this adds to a quicker sale of the 
lettuce. 

As we stated before, lettuce is in good demand in all markets, large or 
small, and we positively advise every truck grower to try lettuce extensively. 
The seed is cheap and the culture very inexpensive. By following the 
above directions every truck grower and beginner can realize good profits 
on lettuce. 



CANTALOUPES. 

HOW TO GROW, PACK AND SHIP ROCKYFORD CANTALOUPES. 

The growing of cantaloupes, especially of the Netted Gems variety^ 
commonly known as Eockyfords, should receive special attention from 
Southern truck growers, because cantaloupes when properly grown and 





C ANTALOUPES 



shipped to Northern markets, are a profitable crop, especially early in the 
season, when Southern growers can place them in those markets.- There 
are some features that must be strictly observed. 



Cuntdlou/, ('■<!. 77 

First : Absolutely pure seed. Cantaloupes, like all all vine products, are 
apt to sport when growing close to cucumbers or watermelons. The seed 
will mix and make the cantaloupes grown from those seed almost worth- 
less, as far as flavor is concerned, as like begets like; therefore, it is very 
important to get only the best seed. Buy your seed only from reliable 
houses. Cheap seed is dear as a gift, for your crop will only be a dis- 
appointment. Two pounds of seed will amply plant one acre. 

SOIL. 

The soil for cantaloupes should be a deep, sandy loam, easy to cultivate 
and absolutely well drained. We would prefer a gentle slope of the land. 

FERTILIZERS. 

We recommend stable manure with ashes mixed for one; chicken drop- 
pings or bat guano as another and phosphate of bones, either of which will 
make good netted melons, if proper cultivation is bestowed. 

PLANTING. 

After the ground is warm, well plowed and harrowed, check off the land 
six feet each way; in each hill apply a shovelful of manure well mixed 
with the soil, or a double-handful of commercial fertilizer. Now draw 
a gentle hill and plant about 12 seeds in each hill, allowing four for the 
insects, four for the blackbird and four to grow. As soon as plants are 
well developed, keep the hoe and cultivators going; gradually thin out to 
two plants in the hill. When vines begin to run freely, stop cultivation, 
except after a heavy rain, break the crust with a rake or light harrow, 
being very careful not to disturb the vines to any extent. A little grass 
at this time is no positive injury in the patch. 

PICKING AND PACKING. 

One of the greatest problems before Southern growers is how to pick, 
pack and ship Eockyford cantaloupes. 

Anybody can pick beans, cucumbers, or other truck. How to pick can- 
taloupes is a science that takes experience and almost an expert to prop- 
erly pick cantaloupes at the proper time or day. It might be said, a 
cantaloupe is one day entirely too green; next day just right and the next 
day too ripe to ship. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that can- 
taloupes should be picked at the right time, because buyers of late year? 
have become very particular. They well know that if picked too green it 
will be of no flavor, therefore worthless to the trade. 

When the melon begins to ripen, pick entirely by color and you will 



7.8 Cantaloupes. 

soon be able to tell a melon as soon as it will ship. If you begin forcing 
the melons from the vines, it bleeds the vines and the other melons come 
off premature, and are 'punks' or without flavor. This is a great mistake, 
and if a melon be picked two days too soon it is never good and others 
are injured on account of it. The best way to pick is in sacks hung 
under the shoulder, and the pickers should have enough sacks so that 
when one is filled it can be laid on the sled which follows the picker? 
(leave a roadway every twelve rows for the sled), and another sack taken 
in. The sled is then hauled to the packing shed, which should have a 
long trough made of burlap about three feet from the ground into which 
the melons can be emptied from the sacks so that the melons are never 
bruised and never exposed to the sun after picking. In crating, take hold 





CANTALOUPES 

of the melon so that the thumb rests on one end, and the second and third 
fingers on the other, and by a slight pressure you can readily detect any 
"soft ends," which must be thrown out. Now you look the melon all over 
for any faults that may appear, and if it is 0. K., place it solidly in the 
crate, taking care not to bruise it, and at the same time to have the crate 
well filled, so there is not a loose melon in it. Do not put in a green 
melon, and make it a rule to put in only what you would be willing to buy. 
Get the crates into the iced car as soon as possible, if to go by freight. 

The standard crate is 12x12x24 inches and the standard pack is 45- 
melons to the crate.. 

There is nothing gained by cutting back the vines, as the loss both in 
quality and quantity of yield more" than offsets any increased earliness. 

In loading cars cantaloupes should always be cooled off before they are 
placed in an iced car, because ■ if they are put in hot they will immediately 
sweat. This sweat will not leave the cantaloupes, because, after the doors 
of the cars are closed, there is no chance for, it to leave. This moisture 
on the cantaloupe will cause it to mould and rot the rind and they will 
be soft, even if still green. Four hundred crates will load a car, making 
20^000 pounds. Favorable markets are St. (Louis, Mo.; Chicago, 111-.; 



Watcniicluiis. 



Cleveland, Ohio; Pittsburg, Pa.; Detroit, Mich.; Cincinnati, Ohio, and 
Buffalo, N. Y., and all large cities in car lots; by express, smaller markets 
are more profitable. 



WATERMELONS. 



HOW TO GROW AND LOAD FOR MARKET. 

For several reasons the culture of -watermelons in the South for the 
Northern markets is extremely profitable when proper methods are em- 
ployed. The culture is easy ; most any land will suit the melon ; the melons 
require no crates or boxes; therefore they can be both cheaply grown and 
shipped. 

SOIL. 

Watermelons, like most vine products, thrive best in a slightly sandy, 
loose soil. New land, as a rule, is well adapted to melons. The land 
must be well drained, therefore a field having a slope is preferable. 

PROXIMITY TO RAILROADS. 

To make watermelon culture profitable the patch should be close to 
loading stations. The melons being heavy, long Hauls are unprofitable, in 
fact, many of the largest watermelon growers in the South are provided 
with a spur track right in the field, where the cars may be loaded at 
leisure and with care. 

SEED. 

There are many excellent varieties of watermelons, as the Georgia 
Rattlesnake, Mountain Sweet, Kolb Gem and others, yet of late years the 
Southern growers have found the Alabama Sweet to be the best all-round 
melon for shipping. It is of an attractive, oblong shape, dark green in 




WATERMELONS 



color and of a sweet and fine flavor, but the most important part is it has 
a hard, tough rind, and therefore possesses fine shipping qualities, which 
is essential in profitable melon shipments. Crushed and broken melons 



80 Watermelons. 

in the car cut a consideralile figure in the account sales of any car. Many 
growers for this reason grow the Alabama Sweet to the exclusion of any 
other. 

FEKTILIZEKS. 

While most soils in the South would grow a fair crop of watermelons 
without any fertilizers, it is equally certain that fertilizers employed in 
the hills are of great assistance for earliness and a superior quality of 
melon. There is hardly anything better than a shovelful of well rotted 
barnyard manure applied under each hill. Care must be exercised that 
the manure is well mixed in the soil, otherwise there is grave danger of 
heat, which may burn the roots of the young plants. Where stable manure 
is not available, commercial fertilizers containing a fair percentage of 
potash and nitrogen may be applied at the rate of about 400 pounds to 
the acre, or a large handful to each hill, well mixed with the soil. 

CULTIVATION", 

As we stated before, tlie cultivation of watermelons is neither difficult 
nor expensive. Plow your ground well broadcast, harrow until in fine 
tilth; now lay off your ground about twelve feet each way with a shovel 
plow, and at each turning apply your fertilizer. Mix well and raise a slight 
hill with the hoe, and then proceed to plant your seed, using about nine 
seeds to each hill, allowing three for the insects, three for the birds and 
three to grow. 

Wlien plants show third or fourth leaf, hoe the hills well and follow 
with double shovel cultivator and harrow between the rows. Keep the top 
of the soil loose to retain moisture until the vines begin to run in earnest. 
Then stop cultivation altogether. It is no disadvantage to allow some 
grass to grow after the melons are setting. Many old growers say it is 
better and we quite agree with them. 

WHAT IS THE BEST SIZE TO GROW? 

From a commercial standpoint, the markets do not take kindly to large, 
overgrown watermelons and this is true of all other fruits and vegetables, 
A car of watermelons averaging from 20 to 30 pounds each melon sells to 
better advantage than a car of 10 or 15 pounds average or a car of 40 to 
50 pounds average. Medium size fruits and vegetables is what the mar- 
ket wants and it is of importance to conform with market requirements 
to insure profits. 

A car of watermelons averaging 25 pounds to the melon will hold about 
1000 melons and is the best selling car as far as size is concerned. 



Watermelons. 81 



LOADING. 



Watermelons should be loaded in ventilated cars. Clean stock cars are 
as good as any. Never load in a dirty car. Place about 10 inches of 
straw, hay or pine straw on the bottom of car. Now place every melon 
carefully and snugly in its place, commencing at the ends of the car and 
finishing at the doors. Allow no one to walk over the melons. Load the 
car about one-half or less full in height. When loading, carefully exam- 
ine every melon for soft places. Throw out every one that shows any 
defect. It is better to throw the melon away at loading than to throw 
it away at the receiving point, after paying freight charges on the melon. 

GREEN MELONS. 

We find in our travels among the commission merchants that there is a 
very general complaint that many carlots of watermelons from the South 
early in the season are cut too green. The shippers are too hasty. A ripe 
melon is. a luxury, a green melon is a disappointment, and melons must 
be ripe to be healthy and salable, therefore ship only matured melons. 
Many fruits will ripen in transit. A watermelon once cut from the vine 
remains as it is. 

HOW TO TELL A RIPE MELON. 

Most experienced melon pickers can tell a ripe melon from the looks. 
Others look for the curl near the melon if it is dead. Others squeeze the 
melon to hear it crack; this test injures the melon for shipping. The best 
test we have ever found is to sound the melon with a snap of the finger. 
If the sound is hollow and rings the melon is sure to be green. If the 
sound is flat and dead the melon is ripe. Snap the top of your shoe. If 
the melon sounds the same it is sure to be ripe. 

PROFITS. 

A car of watermelons brings anywhere from $50 to $200 per car, de- 
pending on earliness and quality. One acre should produce from one to 
two cars. 

MARKETS. 

All Northern cities are favorable markets early in the season. The 
main questions are to load only good melons and get accurate advice about 
market conditions. 



HOW TO GEOW MUSHEOOMS FOE PEOFIT. 

Edible wild mushrooms may be found in abundance in pastures and 
woods throughout the growing season, but especially during the autumn 
months. Attention has been called to these wild forms by a number of 
the experiment stations, and many well illustrated bulletins have been 
published on the subject. Many people are deterred, liowever, from the 
use of this desirable edible because of a fear of accidentally gathering the 
poisonous kind. 

The cultivated mushrooms are not grown as yet to any great extent in 
the United States. They may be had in cities and in limited quantities 
in some of the larger towns, but are usually scarce and expensive. Many 
people who would enjoy having mushrooms added to the home menu are 
(debarred because of the difficulty of obtaining them except at considerable 
expense and because of unfamiliarity as to methods of home culture. 

Owing to the increased interest in mushrooms, G. F. Atkinson and 
E. Shore, of the New York Cornell Station, made a study of methods of 
mushroom culture on a small scale and have recently reported the results 
of this work in bulletin form. The main purpose of the work was to find 




MUSHROOMS 



out by actual trial what success might be expected by the beginner in 
growing mushrooms where no special houses and no elaborate prepara- 
tions were made for their culture. Based on this work the following cul- 
tural directions are given: 

Cellars or basement rooms where the temperature in the winter does not 
go below 55 degrees or does not rise above 65 degrees are suitable places 
for growing mushrooms. It is not advisable to make them under the liv- 
ing part of the house, since the odor of the manure will fill the house. 
They can also be grown in stables which are not too cold in winter. 
* * * Beds can be prepared on the cellar or basement floor by using 
the wall for one side of the bed. A board or plank 1 foot to 15 inches 
in width can then be stood on edge 3 to 4 feet from the basement wall 
and held in position by the necessary upright scantlings and supported 



How to Grow Mushwoms for Profit. 83 

at intervals to hold the material in position. In this way a box of the 
desired width and length can be made, the floor of the basement or cellar 
serving as the bottom. If more space is desired, tiers of beds can be 
made : that is, 2 or 3 or 4 beds one above the other against the cellar wall. 
This is a common practice. Crosspieces from the uprights can be nailed 
on. upon which the floor of the upper beds can be laid. These should be 
made of lumber a% least 1 inch in thickness. A space of about 20 to 34 
inches should be left between the top of one bed and the bottom of the 
one directly above it. All these places should have some ventilation, but 
there should not be air currents, and care should be taken to make the 
rooms in. which the mushrooms are planted clean and sweet, in order to 
avoid as far as possible any conditions which would encourage insects and 
other enemies of mushrooms. ' 

SOIL FOR MUSHROOMS. 

The best soil for mushrooms is that made from horse manure from well 
bedded stables. While some straw is desirable, any large percentage is 
objectionable and should be removed. The manure is cured by putting it 
under cover in piles 3 to 4 feet deep and of any length and width. These 
piles soon begin to ferment and heat. 

To prevent its becoming too hot, the manure must be forked over and 
made into a new pile. This is done by beginning at one end, turning the 
manure over, shaking it slightly as it is turned into the new pile. It may 
feel to the hand quite hot, but as long as it does not turn white or get too 
dry the heating will not harm it. Usually after the manure is well heated, 
turning once in two or three days will answer, but sometimes it is neces- 
sarv to turn every day. 

If the manure becomes too dry, sufficient water may be sprinkled on to 
make it moist, but not too wet. It usually requires ten to fifteen days to 
cure, but should not be put in the beds or boxes until the temperature has 
gone down to 100 degrees F. 

PREPARATION FOR THE BED. 

In the preparation of the bed a layer of the coarse, more strawy portion 
of the manure is first put on the bottom and then thoroughly tramped or 
pounded down. Succeeding layers are then put on and each packed down 
until the bed is 10 to 12 or 14 inches thick. For a few days after the 
bed is made, the temperature is likely to increase, after which it will 
gradually cool off. A thermometer should be kept in the bed several 
inches below the surface, and when the temperature falls to 70 or 75 de- 
grees F. the mushroom spawn may be planted. Sometimes one part of 



84 Mustard. 

rich soil is used witli four or five parts of manure in making the beds. 
In such eases a little of the soil is added with each layer of manure. 

PLANTING THE SPAWN. 

Cultivated mushroom spawn, used for planting the beds, may be obtained 
from nearly any seedman, in the form of dried manure bricks. Before 
using, it should be broken up into pieces about 2 inches in diameter. These 
pieces are planted in the bed 8 to 10 inches apart by making a suitable 
hole about 2 inches deep and pressing the spawn firmly into it. The hole 
should then be again filled with the manure and packed down firmly. The 
bed is then covered loosely with excelsior or straw to retain the moisture 
and to prevent a too rapid fall of temperature. At the end of about a 
week this material is removed and the beds are then covered over with an 
inch to to an inch and a half of rich loamy soil. 

The object in casing the beds with soil is to retain the temperature within 
the material, which is necessary for the maintenance of the growth, and 
it also provides a firmer and cleaner substratum in which the stems of the 
mushrooms are mostly formed and they are thus cleaner when picked. In 
from 6 to 7 weeks mushrooms should begin to appear. 

HARVESTING AND YIELD. 

Mushrooms are ready to pick about the time the gills beneath the um- 
brella portion are a bright pink color. They remain in an edible condi- 
tion until the gills become dark brown or even black, providing they are 
not decayed. If a hole is made in the bed in removing the mushrooms it 
should be filled in again with soil. The beds will need an occasional 
sprinkling with tepid water, but should not be made very wet. Too much 
moisture causes the mushrooms to damp off or rot. 

The yield of mushrooms at the New York Cornell Station was at the 
rate of about two pounds per square foot of surface. The manure or the 
beds was composted the last of October and the beds spawned November 
23. The first mushrooms were picked January 1, or about five weeks after 
spawing the beds. A week later regular picking began, and the beds con- 
tinued in bearing for about three months. 



MUSTAED. 



Mustard may be grown for profit, for home consumption, home markets 
and shipping to Northern, Eastern and Western markets during fall, win- 
ter and spring months. Mustard is used principally as greens, like spinach 



Ol-ra. 



85 



and turnip tops; many consumers jirefer it to alL other greens on account 
of its peppery and sharp flavor. 

SOIL, 

Any ordinary garden soil suitable for turnips or cabbage suits mustard; 
it being a rank grower and feeder, prefers rich land well fertilized with 
most any kind of manure containing a liberal share of phosphoric acid. 




MTTMTARI) 

Nitrate of soda is an excellent fertilizer for mustard. Mixed fertilizer for 
mustard should be applied at the rate of about 1000 pounds per acre. The 
main idea is to get mustard to grow quickly, to be crisp, tender and pala- 
table. 

SEEDS. 

The Giant Southern Curled is considered the best; in fact, it is used 
more than any other variety; the Dwarf Nasturtium is another favorite. 

PLANTING. 

After the ground is well prepared, mustard may be sown broadcast in 
beds and thinned out for market as it matures. 

SHIPPING. 

Mustard is usually tied in bunches and shipped in hampers, crates or 
barrels by express; when shipped by express the barrels must be well iced 
with cracked ice all through the barrel, otherwise the mustard would heat, 
turn yellow and become unsalable. In cars, mustard must be shipped in 
well iced refrigerator cars. 



OKEA. 

In the far Northern, Eastern and Western markets very little is known 
about okra and in consequence it would be risky to ship okra in large quan- 
tities to those markets. As far north as Kansas City, St. Louis or even 



86 



Ohra. 



Chicago, there is a limited demand for okra, but farther north the demand 
would be wanting. 

Okra nevertheless is a very popular vegetable in all Southern markets 
and always salable, the price being regulated by the supply. Okra comes 
to us highly recommended by the medical profession as a very healthy, 
nourishing product, and it matures at a time when all other vegetables are 
scarce and burned out in midsummer; therefore the cultivation of okra 
thould be encouraged, as also the demand is constantly increasing every 
year in the South as consumers become more accustomed to its use. 

SOIL. 

As far as soil is concerned, okra will grow anywhere — on stony, rocky, 
heavy clay, black land or sandy land. Wherever the seed will sprout okra 
will grow and make a crop, depending on the nourishment available in the 
soil. To force okra to mature early, when prices are high, the Southern 
gardener usually manures quite heavily. For okra most any kind of 
manure will accomplish the object. 

SEEDS. 

Louisiana is the headquarters of the South for cultivating okra for ship- 
ment and also for the manufacture of the celebrated gumbo. The gar- 




OKRA 



deners of (Louisiana use principally the Early French Market okra and m 
kind called the Ladyfinger for seed, and which kinds we also recommend 
for other prospective growers of okra. 



PLANTING. 



Okra is best drilled in rows 3 feet apart like corn, as soon as danger of 
frost is over, and then cultivated with the hoe and horse cultivator until 



Onions. ' 87 

the young pods are forming; then no further cultivation is required, as it 
will outgrow any weed after that period. 

PICKING AND PACKING. 

As soon as okra begins to bear the young pods should be cut every day 
while they are about two-thirds grown and still young and tender. It is 
advisable to use a sharp knife and also gloves on the hands. Handling 
okra with the bare hands is usually followed by a disagreeable prickly sen- 
sation on the skin. 

Okra should only be shipped in small packages, like the one-third bushel 
box, one-half bushel basket or hampers, no ice being required by express 
shipments. 



ONIONS. 



BERMUDA ONIONS. 



The unusual success of the Southwestern onion growers past seasons, net- 
ting about $500 per acre on Bermuda onions, has caused many inquiries 
to reach the author of this book, asking for complete information about 
growing Bermuda and other onions in the South, and we feel compelled to 
treat onion culture in a somewhat lengthy article. Many ask, can we grow 
Bermuda onions in our section? To those we wish to say Bermuda onions 
may be grown to perfection in every county of the Southern States, with 




or without irrigation, during the winter months, where the thermometer 
does not fall below 18 above zero; even further north, the Bermuda onion 
seed can be sown in cold frames, where the young plants can be protected 
by covering during extreme cold weather, like early cabbage, and the young 
onion plants set out in the open field in March or April and mature a fine 



88 Onions. 

crop of Bermuda onions for harvest in late May or June, when onion prices 
are the highest. The onion seed for this purpose should be sown in the 
cold frames in November and December. In Southwest Texas or any 
other part of the Southern States, wl^ere extreme freezes are not antici- 
pated, Bermuda onion seed may be sown in well prepared and fertilized 
beds, either broadcast or in drills, in September or October, and as soon 
as the young onions are the size of lead pencils they may be transplanted 
in the open field during November, December and January. Until the 
seeds are up the beds should be kept moist by watering every day in the 
evening. 

SEEDS. 

All of the seeds from which the Bermuda onions are grown are not im- 
ported from the Bermuda Islands, as the name would imply, but from 
Tenorife. Spain — Tenerife being an island belonging to the group of 
Canary Islands in the Mediterranean Sea on the coast of Spain. Many 
attempts have been made to grow the seed in California and other parts 
of the world, but so far the Tenerife seeds are the only seeds which have 
proven satisfactory. The seeds must be obtained fresh in the fall from 
responsible dealers, who make a specialty of importing only the pure seed 
from the islands. Two-year-old seed are not advisable for use. The new 
crop of seed arrives in this country in October, and it is usual for growers 
of onions to order their seed ahead of that time for prompt delivery. 
There are three distinct varieties of Bermuda onions — the Crystal Wax, 
the White and the Eed Bermuda. The Crystal Wax is the most showy 
and rich, possessing a fine flat shape and a creamy wax color. The seeds 
of the Crystal Wax are higher in price and more difficult to obtain, only a 
few hundred pounds being grown and all are generally engaged before it 
ever arrives in this country. 

The White Bermuda is the next best and is used more generally than 
the other two kinds. The Eed Bermuda is also a good onion, but does 
not compare in demand and prices with the Crystal Wax or White Ber- 
mudas. 

SOIL, 

It is fortunate for the Southern grower that nearly all of our lands make 
good onions ; the red lands, the waxy black land, the hogwallow or prairie, 
all yield good harvests. We can not recommend an over-sandy land, stifE 
lands being preferable; wliile some lands even without fertilizer may grow 
a good yield of onions, it is equally certain that manures rich in ammonia, 
potash and nitrogen are a great help, if not essential, and we advise and 



Onions. 89 

urge fertilizers, in all cases to insure absolute success, about 1000 pounds 
to the acre. 

THE SEED BED. 

]\[ake your seed beds in September or October, allowing ;j50 to 400 square 
feet of bed to every pound of seed. Sow in drills rather thickly, not over 
six inches apart and less than one-half inch deep. Keep the soil well 
watered. A little coal tar in the water will assist in keeping off any in- 
sects; gradually diminish the supply of water. The planter should know 
that oniop seed wilt not germinate in a high temperature. The best re- 
sults are had by planting the seed when the weather has become cool. 

TKANSPLANTING. 

Don't let the roots of your seedlings become dry. "\^^len the seedlings 
are pulled from the seed bed, clip off two-thirds of the roots and three- 
fourths of the green growth. Set out in the field in rows fourteen inches 
apart and four inches in the row, and cultivate with a wheel hoe. Should 
any plant fail to "take," put another in its place. Keep the culiivator 
moving. Grass and ii-ecds viiisi be kept down. Don't run your cultivator 
too deep, just deep enough to keep the extreme surface of the ground 
loose is just right. Your deep plowing must be done before the seedlings 
are set out. After the transplanted seedlings have started into growth, a 
top dressing of, say, 200 pounds nitrate of soda to the acre (which should 
be raked in), will push them along. When the bulbs are about one-half 
grown, apply 50 to 100 pounds of acid of phosphate to the acre (raked in 
lightly), which will intensify the coloring and develop the flavor of the 
bulbs. 

HARVESTING. 

Do not pull your onions until they are thoroughly matured. As soon 
as pulled, transfer them to where they can dry off in the shade. The 
earliest onions can be packed in crates and shipped to Northern markets 
where they will obtain top prices. Sun cured Bermuda onions are not 
good keepers. 

YIELD PER ACRE. 

The Texas Experiment Station reports a yield of 13,152 pounds of Eed 
Bermuda onions to the acre. Individual growers have produced as high as 
30,000 pounds to the acre, and many growers have received as high as 2^ 
cents a pound for their entire crop. It will thus be seen that profits on 
Bermuda onion borders on fiction^ and even at these prices there was not 



dO Creole Onions. 

enough Bermuda onions grown to supply the demand last season, although 
over 1000 ears were shipped from Southwest Texas al'one. 

PACKING. 

As a rule Southern Bermuda onions are packed and shipped in the Cum- 
mer folding crate, standard size, 24 inches long, width 6% inches and 
depth 16 inches, holding about 58 pounds or one bushel. Bermuda onions 
may be shipped without ice either by express or freight, providing the 
onions are well cured and thoroughly drj-. By following the above direc- 
tions anyone may grow Bermuda onions successfully in the South. 



CEEOLE ONIONS. 

There are many excellent 'ouions for the Gardener's use, such as 
the Australian Brown, Prizetaker. Silverskin, Yellow Danver and White 
Queen, but experience has taught us that the Bermuda and Creole 
onions are the best for Southern growing, when shipping onions to market 
for profit is the object. As this work only intends to treat of vegetables 
adapted to the South, we confine ourselves in this onion discourse to those 
two fine and remunerative varieties — the Bermuda and Creole. 

We have always • considered the genuine red and white Creole onions 
to be the best all-around onions for the Southern growers. They originat- 
ed in Louisiana, showing that the Creole onions are indigenous to the 
Southern climate. They will stand more drought and heavy rains than 
any other onions, and growing more in the ground (and not on top of 




CREOLE ONIONS 

the soil like the Bermuda) they stand heavier freezes in the winter than 
the Bermuda onion. We have had Bermuda onions frequently killed, when 
the Creole escaped unhurt, but the best point of all is the keeping quality 
of the Creole onions. They' do not have to be rushed on a low market. 
They can be icept until prices are right. Creole onions harvested in May 
can be kept all summer simply ])y spreading them out on a dry floor. TKe 
Creoles are solid, well shaped and salable 'onions in any market. 

The intelligent, French Creole gardeners of Louisiana have grown these 



Creole Onions. 91 

onions for over fifty years, almost to tlie exclusion of any other onions, be- 
cause the Creole onions have proven to be money makers, and we strongly 
advise all of our readers to give these onions a fair trial. 

SEED. 

There are two varieties of Creole onions, the red and white; the red is 
more generally grown. The- seeds may be obtained from any reliable seed 
dealer. 

SOIL, 

Like all members of the onion family, Creole onions succeed best in a rich 
alluvial, slightly sandy, soil ; a damp soil is preferable to a dry soil. Deep 
plowing and preparing the land in as fine a tilth as possible is of good ad- 
vantage. 

FERTILIZERS. 

Well rotted stable manure is a suitable fertilizer. Fresh stable manure 
should not be used, as it is apt to burn out the crop and may contain weed 
and grass seeds, which make the cultivation more difficult; for this reason 
we have always preferred commercial fertilizers, applying about 1,500 
pounds to the acre. The fertilizer should contain: nitrogen, 4 per cent; 
actual potash, 7 per cent; available phosphoric acid, 6 per cent. 

PLANTING. 

Sow the seeds in drills 2 feet apart, and when the plants are partially 
grown, of sufficient size for green onions, thin out, leaving one or two 
plants every 12 inches. The green young onions may be shipped for table 
use, and can be converted into a source of profit by tying in bunches and 
shipping to market, as green Creole onions make a delightful dish. In the 
South commence to sow the seed after September 15th and you may con- 
tinue to sow in intervals until February. 

HARVESTING AND SHIPPING. 

After the tops show a little yellow and begin to droop, the onions are 
ready. Pull the onions and place them on the barn floor or shed and 
dry out thoroughly. Pack and ship either by express or freight in bushel 
boxes, hampers or barrels. If the onions are dry, no ice is required in ship- 
ping either by express or carlots by freight. 

Under normal conditions an acre of Creole onions will produce 20,000 
pounds or more, depending on the richness of the soil and manner of cul- 
tivation. 



ONION SETS. 



TO GROW OISnONT SETS. 



A clean, sandy soil, free from rubbish, weeds, stones, etc., is one of the 
first essentials. It need be only fairly, not excessively, rich to produce a 
good crop of sets. Apply a moderate coat of fine, old manure, or a half 
ton of some good complete fertilizer or vegetable manure; plow and fit the 
soil thoroughly so as to have a clean, smooth surface. Use the Philadelphia 
Silver Skin (White Portugal) for white sets, the Yellow Dutch (Strasburg) 
for yellow, and Australian Brown or Extra Early Eed for red sets. Prize- 
taker makes some good, long-keeping yellow sets which in turn make very 
fine, sweet bunch onions. Sow seed as early in the spring as you can get 




ONIONS FROM SETS 

around to it, in rows a foot apart, using 30 or more pounds of seed to the 
acre. Otherwise treat the patch as you would treat a patch of ordinary 
onions, except that no thinning is to be done. When the majority of the 
tops have died down, in the fall, take the little sets up by running a garden 
trowel under the row, from the end, and throw them into a sieve, sifting 
out sand and dirt. Store in shallow layers under shelter until well cured, 
then clean and store them for winter. 

Onion sets are grown more to produce young green onions for table use 
tljan for a matured dry crop, seeds being more profitable to use for a dry 
crop. 

By following the above directions any gardener may grow sets for his 
own use, or for market, for which there is always a good demand. 



PAESLEY. 

Parsley is used mostly for seasoning and ornamenting dishes for table 
use. The cultivation of parsley is not advisable to any large extent, as the 
demand at all times is practically limited. 



Parsnips. 



93 



SOIL. 



Parsley will thrive well in most any good garden soil, suitable for let- 
tuce or cabbage. Tlie main idea is to get it to grow quickly, to be tender 
and salable. 



SEEDS. 



Either the plain parsley or the Champion Moss Curled Parsley are 
favorite varieties for the market gardener. 



PLANTING. 

Sow in bed broadcast in the early fall and continue to sow until Feb- 
ruary, in order to have parsley in succession. 

PACKING AND SHIPPING. 

When parsley is of sufficient size, about eight inches high, it is ready 
for market ; pull the plant and cut off all roots short, and tie in small 
bunches ; pack, and ship by express in bushel boxes, hampers or barrels. 
In barrels parsley must be well iced with cracked ice in layers throughout 
the barrel, otherwise it is liable to heat, turn yellow and become unsalable. 



PARSNIPS. 



Parsnips are not generally growai in the South. The value of parsnips 
as a culinary vegetable is not known to many Southern gardeners, and yet 




PAUHNIPS 

parsnips is an excellent crop to grow for profit, as many consumers pre- 
fer parsnips to any root crop. For stock food the roots are richer than 
either carrots or turnips, especially for dairy purposes. On favorable soils 

7 



94 English Peas. 

parsnips will produce an enormous crop, and the cultivation is easy and 
inexpensive. 

CULTURE. 

They do best on a deep, rich, sandy soil, but will make good roots on any 
soil which is deep, mellow and moderately rich. Fresh manure is apt to 
make the roots coarse and ill-shaped. As the seed is sometimes slow to 
germinate, it should be sown as early as possible, in drills two feet to two 
and one-half feet apart; cover one inch deep and press the soil firmly over 
the seed. Give frequent cultivation and thin the plants to five or six to 
the foot. 

HARVESTING, PACKING AND SHIPPING. 

In the fall, when the tops are turning yellow, the roots are ready for 
market ; they may be plowed or dug out with the spade, and left in the field 
for a day or two to dry. 

Parsnips should only be sliip2>ed in barrels, by express or freight. For^ 
winter use, the roots may also be stored in the cellar or roothouse, in the. 
same manner as sweet or Irish potatoes. 



ENGLISH PEAS. 

HOW TO PLANT, GROW AND SHIP. 

Peas commonly known as English peas are in excellent demand in all 
markets North or South, East or West, all through the fall, winter and 




ENGLISH PEAS 

spring months. We have ourselves shipped peas to Northern markets 
for many years, and have never met with a glutted market, or that ship- 
ments did not meet with ready sale at excellent prices. The pea is a 



English Peas. 95 

universally favorite vegetable with all classes, especially in the early spring, 
owing to its succulent qualities and nourishing properties. Peas are not 
difficult to grow and by following the directions below, anyone, even the 
beginner, can make a success. 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS. 

Peas succeed best on a warm, loamy soil; we would not advise to plant 
peas on sandy soils. Fertilizers — No nitrogen is needed beyond a small 
amount to give plants a vigorous start ; use from 600 to 800 pounds of 
some good standard manure containing a fair proportion of actual potash 
and available phosphoric acid. Well rotted stable manures are also good, 
if not applied too heavily ; if applied too heavily the peas will grow too much 
to foliage and not to fruit. 

SEEDS. 

There are two distinct varieties of peas; one is called the dwarf or bush 
pea, and the other the running or climbing pea. The dwarf pea requires 
no staking and the climbing pea should be staked with brush, sticks or 
wire. We have always found the climbing pea the most productive and 
profiiable. In the South the Alaska dwarf pea and the Philadelphia Extra 
•Early are the most popular of the dwarf varieties. The dark green 
color of the pods make them excellent peas for shipping long distances. 
They are very early and uniform growers, and popular sorts with canners 
and all shippers. 

Among the climbing varieties the large white marrowfat is considered 
the best. As the vines are ver}'' hardy, strong, vigorous and productive, 
the pods have a fine appearance, usually well filled with good peas. 

PLANTING. 

After the ground is thoroughly pulverized by deep plowing and har- 
rowing, the dwarf varieties should be planted two and one-half feet apart, 
and the climbing varieties four feet apart, covering the seed about 
two inches. Like all other vegetables, peas love frequent shallow cultiva- 
tion, which should be done with horse cultivator and followed with the hoe. 

PACKING. 

After the pods are well filled the peas should be picked when the vines 
are dry from either rain or dew, taken to the packing shed and aissorted, 
throwing out all faulty and overgrown, tough peas; ship only the best. 
Peas should be packed in one-third bushel boxes or one-half bushel baskets. 
No ice is required when shipped by express; if shipped in carloads the 
cars must be well iced. 



9:G 



Peppers. 



MAKKETING. 

Peas can be planted in ihe South generally in the months of October, 
November, December, January and February, using the dwarf kinds for 
spring plantings. The cost of seed is from $3 to $3 per bushel, and it 
takes two bushels to plant one acre. The yield from one acre under 
normal conditions is about 150 bushels of green peas of the climbing 
varieties, and 100 bushels of the dwarf varieties. Green peas sell from 
$1 to $3 per bushel in all markets. 



PEPPEES. 



HOW TO GROW. PACK AND SHIP. 



Tabasco Peppers and Egg Plant — What season to plant seed? 

What manner to plant seed? 

What variety seed andwliere secured? 

Cost of seed to transplant an acre? 

What season ready for market and where? 

Tn what manner transplanted and how thick? 

What amount of irrigation required? 

As to the cultivation? 

As the use of the pepper is so universal and the demand at all times 
brisk, especially in the Southern States, we advise the growing of peppers 
by all of our readers, from small to large patches for profit. 

The culture of peppers is not difficult; it is, as we may term it, a semi- 
tropical plant and thrives best in warm latitudes, and all of the Southern 





■^v 4^,-** 



PEPPERS 

States offer both good fields and markets for peppers, for, it must be 
known, very little of the peppers consumed in the South are grown there. 



most of it bciiio- imported from foreign countries and particularly from 
Mexico in the dry and cured state. 

All varieties of peppers love a loose, heavy soil, rich with humus, which 
must be well prepared and made specially rich with well rotted bam yard, 
sheep or chicken manure; well rotted leaf mold, mixed with commercial 
fertilizer, is also a very acceptable manure for peppers. 

First, prepare your beds the same as for tomatoes and egg-plant, and 
sow your seeds as soon as ground is warm for plants. Water freely until 
plants are nice and stocky; do not sow seeds too thickly; if .sown too thickly, 
the plants should be once transplanted in the beds to make them hardy and 
able to stand the transplanting to the field. 

Now prepare your land well and transplant your pepper plants in rows 
two feet apart, and the plants one and one-half feet in the rows. Follow 
with clean cultivation with horse cultivator and hoe, and under ordinary 
cultivation you will make a splendid crop of peppers, of pleasing sight and 
remunerative results. 

SEEDS. 

The best and most profitable varieties of peppers are: First, the Sweet 
Peppers, either the Ruby King, Bell or Bull Nose; these are very popular 
and are used as a salad when green, and are now shipped by many truck 
growers to citv markets, Avhere they find ready sale at from $1.00 to $3.00 
per bushel, especially in the early season. Second, Tabasco. This variety 
is very strong and in great demand by pickling factories, and splendid 
for home use. The plants are very prolific. The Tabasco sauce is made 
from this variety. Third, the Chili, a small variety from three-fourths to 
an inch long, which is much used for sauce and chili concarne. Fourth, 
Eed Cluster. This pepper is very hot and also ornamental, and a 
great favorite with many housewives. Fifth: Celestial is probably the 
handsomest pepper grown. The plants grow stout, upright, produce a 
large number of fine colored pods and as they continue to bloom and 
set fruit during the season, the pods are of different colors, first a light 
green, then pure white, bright yellow and finally maturing into a bright 
scarlet color. We commend this variety highly to our readers. 

Peppers require little moisture and no irrigation is required, unless it 
may be in the arid region. It thrives best on well drained land. The 
seed can be bought from any seed dealer. The cost of seed ranges from 
$2 to $4 per pound. Six ounces of seed will make enough plants to plant 
one acre. 

MARKETING. 

The green peppers used for slicing as salads should be picked daily and. 
packed either in one-third bnshel boxes or one-half bushel baskets. 



98 Irish Potatoes. 

Peppers must be well dried and cured, packed in barrels or crates and 
offered to jnerchants and pickle factories. 



IRISH POTATOES. 

now TO GEOW, CULTIVATE, HARVEST AND SHIP TO MARKET. 

The growing of Irish potatoes in the Southern States for the Northern, 
Eastern and Western markets is, comparatively speaking, of recent origin; 
even ten years ago the State of Texas, which now ships hundreds of cars, 
produced but a small crop each year, and that was more for home con- 
sumption. The author himself raised a fine crop some twenty years 
ago, but found a limited market in harvest time, selling from 20 to 30 
cents per bushel. It is rarely now the Southern grower receives less than 
twice that amount, and this price, with a good demand, has stimulated 




IRISH POTATOKS 

the industry and makes the growing and shipping of new potatoes to 
market profitable. The Irish potato only occupies the land for a short 
time, and other crops, like corn, cotton and forage crops, may be grown 
after the potatoes have been harvested. 



SOIL. 



The soil best adapted to grow Irish potatoes is a loose, sandy loam, 
brought to a high state of cultivation by frequent plowing and harrowing. 
The ground must be subject to complete drainage, as water must never 
stand in a potato field. There is really more liability of losing an Irish 
potato crop by excessive rains and moisture than by drouth in the spring. 

SEEDS. 

With hardly anv exception, tlie Southern growers have adopted the 
Red Bliss Triumph as the standard. It seems to yield better and mature 
earlier than any other kind. We recommend the Triumph for seed. The 
seed is usually grown and secured from Maine, but lately other localities 



Irish Potatoes. 99 

furnish the seed ; some groweers even prefer seed potatoes grown at home, 
especially for fall planting. 

now TO CUT AND USE THE SEED. 

This is an important subject, as often complete failures are made by the 
want of proper knowledge of how to plant the seed. In the South Irish 
potatoes planted in the fall must be planted whole, regardless of the num- 
ber of eyes ; if cut they will invariably rot in the ground. 

Spring planting is difl'erent. Potatoes should be cut for best results 
in the spring; the ground is cooler and the potatoes possess more vigor to 
grow. According to the various experiments by ourselves and experimental 
stations, two eyes are the best by all odds, and results have shown the fol- 



lowing : , 

1st best - eyes 

2nd best 3 eyes 

3rd best 1 eye 

4th best 4 eyes 

FERTILIZERS. 

I 

Well rotted or old barnyard manure can be used to advantage, but 
green stable manure should never be used on Irish potatoes, as it makes 
the young potatoes invariably scabby and unsalable at any price. Experi- 
ence in the past has taught us that commercial fertilizers, intelligently ap- 
plied, give the best results. The most complete fertilizer for Irish potatoes 
we ever used was : 

Cottonseed meal 500 lbs. 

Acid phosphate 250 lbs. 

Kainit 250 lbs. 

On one acre, by using proper seedis and applying good cultivation, any- 
one can grow a splendid crop of Irish potatoes by following the above 
formula. 

PLANTING. 

After the ground has been thoroughly plowed and harrowed, lay off 
the rows two and one-half feet apart, making a slight furrow, into which 
drop the pieces of potatoes every ten inches apart; cover vvith the hoe or 
turning plow. Just before the potatoes come up, run a light harrow over 
the ground to break the crust, and also to kill young weeds or grass. 
After the potato plants are about six inches high, commence to cultivate 
with the horse cultivator, followed by the hoe. Two or tliree cultivations 
during the growing season are oenerally suffieient to secure a good crop. 

L,Of U 



1»0 



Irish Potatoes. 



Do not cultivate too late; after the young potatoes are about one-third or 
one-half grown all cultivation must stop. 

INSECTS. 

The Colorado potato beetle is the worst enemy of the Irish potato, 
and the tops of the potatoes should be sprayed or dusted with paris green. 
For formula and manner of applying, read part 4 of this book, treating on 
insects. 

HOW TO DIG, ASSORT AND PACK IRISH I'OTA'rOES. 

Irish potatoes should be dug^ or plowed out, and never left in the sun- 
shine. Some experienced potato growers in the South are so particular 
about this that they will only dig potatoes late in the evening, so as to 
avoid sunshine as much as possible. Irish potatoes should i)e thoroughly 





cleaned from all dirt, and carefully assorted as to size. Special machines 
are on the market for this purpose, and we advise the use of the same by 
all shippers, as no potatoes less than two inches in diameter should ever 
be packed in any potato car. 

In the very early part of the season, small potatoes, even before they 
are ripe or grown, may be shipped l^y express in small lots, as tliey form 
a delightful dish, with green English peas, and are in good demand in all 
markets, but for regular shipments notliing less than two inches should be 
used. 

On this page we produce two potatoes (see above), one two inches in 
diameter, the other one and one-half inches in diameter. It is a positive 
lass to the shipper to ship any potatoes in a car that are less than two 
inches in diameter. The little potatoes add only to the freight bill and 
detract from the price of the marketable potatoes, and in thi- way act detri- 
mentally in two ways. A difference of 15 or 20 cents per l)usliel in a car cuts 
into the net proceeds, and the small potatoes are responsible for the cut. On 



J risk Potatoes. 101 

the other hand, the little potatoes are worth nearly as much to the fanner 
as the big ones; they are good for home use, for stock and seed for fall 
planting, as they keep much better than the large potatoes, and usually 
fi grower can get $1 a bushel for the small potatoes for seed, in the fall. 

HOW TO PLANT IRISH POTATOES FOR A FALL CROP. 

Nearly all of the Irish potatoes consumed in the Southern States dur- 
ing the fall and winter months are imported from the Northern and 
Western States. The freight charges on these potatoes range from 40c 
to 50c per bushel. No matter how cheap the potatoes may be in the North 
or West, the freight has to be paid, and therefore Irish potatoes during 
fall and winter months sell from 7oc to $1.00 per bushel in any Southern 
market. In fact, they have to sell at those prices to leave any profit 
to the Northern shippers. It follows, if we grow the potatoes in the South 
and save only the freight charges, we are bound to obtain fair prices for 
every bushel of potatoes we offer in the fall and winter months. There 
is also always a good demand for seed for spring planting. Why should 
we pay one dollar and a dollar and a half for seed potatoes, when we 
can grow them Just as good in the South if we try? Many growers even 
claim Southern seed potatoes are the best. We know by experience that 
they are just as good. 

The most difficult part of planting Irish potatoes in the fall is to get 
them to come up even. Irish potatoes for fall planting must never be 
cut. They must be planted whole. Some growers advocate sprouting the 
potatoes before planting. Others condemn it. When properly done, sprout- 
ing the potatoes before planting is by all odds the best. 

SPROUTING. 

Clear off a sunny piece of ground, well drained, and lay your small seed 
potatoes from 4 to 6 inches deep. Now cover with straw or hay 8 inches 
deep. If a rain should now come, all the better ; if not, water the straw 
heavily and watch your potatoes closely. Keep the straw moist, not too 
wet; in about ten days or two weeks small sprouts will appear on the pota- 
toes. When the sprouts are one-fourth or one-half inch long the pota- 
toes are ready to plant in the field. 

PLANT ABOUT AUGUST 15tH OR SEPTEMBER IST. 

It is very important, when planting potatoes in the fall, that the ground 
is well prepared, by deep plowing and harrowing. Lay off your ground in 
rows two and a half feet apart and drop your seed in the fresh opened. 



102 Irish Potatoes. 

co'ol, moist earth ; cover at once and do not let the furrow dry out and let 
the sunshine on your sprouted potatoes. 

Past results have pointed to the fact that potatoes must be planted 
deeper in the fall than in the spring — at least six inches deep — away from 
the hot top soil and rays of the hot sun. 

When these directions are carefully carried out a good stand may be 
expected. 

FERTILIZERS. 

The most complete fertilizer for Irish potatoes we ever used on one 
acre was : 

Cottonseed meal 500 lbs. 

Acid phoisphate 250 lbs. 

Kainit 250 lbs. 

Total for one acre 1,000 lbs. 

There are many other good commercial fertilizers, that can be used ta 
advantage, and which can be procured from manufacturers who make 
special manures for potatoes. We cannot recommend green stable manure 
for fall planting of Irish potatoes, as it is too heating, and makes them 
scabby. 

As soon as potatoes are up or even before, the crust must be broken and 
kept broken by constant cultivation, to allow the cool winds to penetrate 
the soil, and it also serves to retain the moisture in the ground, which is 
essential for all fall gardeninsf. 

A POTATO HOUSE. 

Dig the potatoes and lay them in the shade for about one-half of the 
day, then bring them up and put them in the potato house, and you will 
never lose any of them. We have kept potatoes for three years this way. 

Potato house. — Dig your house fifteen feet long by five in width, one 
and one-half feet deep; then set a forked post in each end and also one 
in the center for the ridge pole to rest on. Then place poles from the 
ridge to the ground on each side up close to one another; then on top of 
that place some straw or hay and then put on your dirt, and your potato 
house is done, except the ends. We tacked net wire over ours so the 
chickens could not get in and then spread some cotton sacks over that, 
lacking a little of coming to the bottom, so the air could pass through. 
Of course, when it rains we put some oilcloth over each end to keep out 
the water, but Just as soon as the rain is over we take that off. Be sure 
to i-un your potato house north and south and place your door in the 
north end. At present we have our house full of potatoes. They have 



How to Grow and Harvest Sweet Potatoes. 



103 



been put up about six weeks, and' are just tis sound as can be. To keep 
from freezing in the winter, earth may be applied all around and to the 
top, leaving one or two vent holes. Sweet potatoes may be kept in the 
same way. 



HOW TO GEOW AND HAKVEST SWEET POTATOES. 

The sweet potato thrives only in a wann climate and soil, therefore the 
Southern States offer the best fields. In the Northern States, a small 
sweet potato, such as the Nansemond and Jersey Sweet, is grown with 
profit, and could be grown in the South and shipped to Northern mar- 




SWEET POTATOES 

kets with good results, as earliness would be an object. The seed pota- 
toes should be bedded in hotbeds in January, protected during cold weather 
and set out when danger of frost is over. 

SOIL. 

The sweet potato will grow in most any kind of soil, providing the 
land is subject to drainage; a slightly sandy soil is always preferable, as 
it makes the cultivation and harvest more easy. No fertilizers are re- 
quired, unless the soil should be exceedingly poor; in fact, fertilizer 
may prove a detriment, as it may induce too many vines in place of tubers, 
but fertilizers may be used on the smaller earlier varieties with advantage 
when earliness is the object. 

VARIETIES. 

There are many useful varieties; prominent among the small earlv 
kinds are the Jersey Sweet, Jersey Red and Nansemond. Among the larger 
and later kinds are the Pumpkin Yam, the Southern Queen, the Vineless, 
Southern Eed and Sugar Yam. 



104 Pumplins. 

PLANTING. 

Sweet potcitoes are never growTi from seed, as the plants bloom only 
in the tropics, similar to morning glory, and seeds can be used only to 
produce new varieties. The origin of the sweet potato is the morning glory. 
Sweet potatoes are therefore only propagated from the tubers, for field 
planting, make a bed rather sandy, and lay the potatoes close together. 
Water moderately ; cover five inches deep. In about six weeks' time regular 
plants will be formed, which can be pulled up and set out in the field, on 
ridges three feet apart. After the first planting is done, and after the 
sweet potatoes have produced vines, if there is occasion to plant more 
acreage for a late crop, during moist and cloudy weather part of the 
vines may be removed, cut in lengths of about six inches, and planted again 
on ridges, for further crops. 

CULTIVATION. 

Before the young sweet potato plants are firmly established and run 
ning, the hoe should be applied to keep the young grass from choking 
out the plants. Some horse cultivating is also advisable with the plow and 
sweep, through the middles, after the vines are thick and about cover 
the ground. T^To further attention is necessary. 

HARVESTING. 

For immediate eating or market, through the summer, sweet potatoes 
may be dug at any time when the size is sufficient to be marketable. For 
storing and winter and spring use, the sweet potatoes should be left in 
the ground until thoroughly ripe. This can be determined by the follow- 
ing test: Cut a potato in two parts; if the cut part stays dry the potato 
is ripe for storing; if the cut part emits a milky substance in drops, the 
potato is not ripe, and will not keep in storage. Sweet potatoes harvested 
while the ground is dry will keep better than when the ground is wet. 

For market sweet potatoes may be shipped in bushel crates, barrels or 
sacks. 

For remedies for the sweet potato borers and other enemies of the sweet 
potatoes, read part 4 of this book. 



PUMPKINS. 



Pumpkins with the farmer and truck grower are more of a side crop 
and cannot be depended upon as a shipping crop to any extent, although 
we believe the genuine old yellow pumpkins, the kind famous for pumpkin 



Radish Culture. 



105 



pies, could be grown in the South and shipped early in the fall to large 
cities, with flattering reesults. p]verybody eats pumpkin pie up North and 
they can hardly wait until pumpkin time. The South might anticipate 




PUMPKINS 

the want and reap a good harvest. Pumpkins also make an excellent stock 
food, and should always be grown to some extent on every farm. The 
labor IS .slight; dropping and planting the seed in cornfields, nooks and 
corners usually produces large crops, without any expense or outlay in 
labor. When grown as a regular crop, pumpkins should be planted in 
hills, ten or twelve feet apart, similar to watermelons. Fertilizing increases 
the crop. Eotten stable manure is as good as any. Commercial fertilizers 
should be used at the rate of about 800 pounds to the acre in the hills, 
well mixed with the soil. 

SEEDS. 

Favorite kind is the Large Cheese or Field Pumpkin. It is of round 
flat shape, salmon yellow in color, and a desirable kind. In the Southern 
cities a great favorite is the Kershaw crookneck for table use, which can be 
planted with profit for Southern markets only. 

The Mammoth Tours pumpkins are famous for their size, and frequently 
weigh from 100 to 125 pounds. It is of a grayish yellow color; flesh is 
coarse-grained and fine for stock feeding. AVhere size is an object, we 
recommend this varietv. 



RADISH CULTURE. 



Most truckers regard the growing of radishes as inisignificant, and yet 
it is doubtful if there is a single vegetable more profitable than radishes, 
if properly grown and marketed. Radishes should only be grown on light, 
mellow soil, well prepared before planting and heavily manured. To be 
palatable, radishes must be grown quickly. 



106 



Radish Culture. 



SEEDS. 



While there are many kinds of radishes, the Chartier Half Long, the 
White Tipped French Breakfast, Half Long Deep Scarlet, Scarlet Olobe 
and Chinese Eose are the most favorite with all Southern gardeners. 
The Chartier is a tender, juicy radish; the French Breakfast a showy, 




RADISHEB 

exquisite radish. jSTeither of these, however, will stand any very low 
temperature. The Chinese Eose is hardy, practically an ideal winter 
radish, as even the hardest freezes do not kill it, and it is, therefore, 
planted to a large extent by Southern growers. 

Eadishes can only attain quick growth, obtain good shape and be of 
crisp texture in rich, loose, mellow, alluvial soil, containing humus. It is 
useless to attempt to grow palatable radishes in harsh, hard or rocky soils. 

FERTILIZERS. 

As quick growth in radishes is desirable, .special manures become valu- 
able agents. There is nothing better than well rotted stable manure, be- 
cause it contains all the elements required by radish growth, but where 
commercial fertilizers will have to be substituted, use 1,000 pounds per 
acre, broadcast, fertilizer containing at least nitrogen 5 per cent, actual 
potash 9 per cent, available phosphoric acid 6 per cent. 



PLANTING. 



. The planting can be done by broadcasting or in drills 18 inches apart. 
We prefer the drills, because they are more easily gathered and some 



Rhubarb. 107 

cultivation can be bestowed on them, which is good for all vegetables. It 
takes about 10 pounds of seed to the acre, if sown in drills, three times as 
much as if broadcasted. 

HARVESTING AND PACKING. 

Ais soon as the radishes attain their growth, they should be pulled, dis- 
carding all of a spongy nature, which can be ascertained by a gentle pres- 
sure of the fingers; the long, small roots trimmed off, as well as any ex- 
cessive top ; now tie in bunches of twelve to the bunch. Kadishes are gen- 
erally quoted in the markets at i?o much per dozen; this means a dozen 
bunches of twelve radishes each. The price ranges from 30 cents to $1.00 
per dozen bunches, according to demand and supply. When shipping in 
refrigerator cars, the bunches can be packed nicely in layers in either 
barrels or boxes. The barrels should be cut open on the sides for ventila- 
tion. 

When shipping by express, radishes should be shipped in barrels with 
cracked ice — put down a layer or radishes, then cracked ice, and so on 
until the barrel is full. The amount of ice should be gauged by the dis- 
tance and time to market, from 10 to 25 pounds per barrel. 

MARKETS. 

Eadishes are relished by nearly everyone; therefore any town from 500 
to 50,000 inhabitants presents profitable markets. There are thousands 
of small towns in the North, East and West that might be supplied by 
express shipments during the months of December, January, February 
and March. Large cities are more profitably reached in carlots. 



RHUBAEB. 

HOW TO GROW AND SHIP. 

Rhubarb is grown solely for its fleshy and Juicy leaf stalks, which must 
quickly reach their full size, and for which result a deep, very fertile 
soil is essential. Moist .lands are preferable, as warmth, moisture and fer- 
tilizer are the three requirements for growing rhubarb ; and yet rhubarb 
resents a hot climate, and will not do well in the extreme South, but we 
believe rhubarb could be grown in the South in sheds during the winter 
months, with remarkable success, and we look for this industry to flourish 
some day, when the cultivation under sheds will be inaugurated. In plant- 
ing in the South under shed, the roots should be imported from the North 
every fall for the purpose. 



1G8 



Hoiv to Groiv, Pack and Ship Turin ps. 



Rhubarb is only propagated by the roots, simihir to asparagus, which 
are planted in rows three feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the 




RHUBARB 

rows. Heavy fertilizing is more important than cultivation after the 
roots have started to grow. Liquid manure is highly recommended for 
rhubarb. 



HOW TO GROW, PACK AND SHIP TURNIPS OR RUTABAGAS. 

SOILS AND FERTILIZEES. 

It iis generally supposed that turnips or rutabagas will do well on any 
soil and with scarcely any fertilising. This is a mistake. Turnips or 
rutabagas should be planted in the South on light, loamy, well manured 
land. Cottonseed meal broadcasted is an excellent fertilizer for turnips, 
and so is well rotted .stable manure. If other manures are used, use 600 
pounds per acre, especially manures that contain nitrogen, actual potash and 
available phosphoric acid. 

The intention of using manures is to stimulate quick growth, as no 
vegetable is palatable or salable if grown slowly, and is tough in conse- 
quence. 

PLANTING. 

The ground for turnips or rutabagas should be well plowed and har- 
rowed, and thoroughly pulverized. This also tends to quick growth. They 
can be sown broadcast. Most truckers sow in rows two and a half feet 
apart, and thin out to a stand. This is more preferable as the crop is more 
easily gathered and taken care of, and some cultivation can be given be- 
tween the rows, which is also good. 

SEEDS. 

The most widely cultivated and best known variety for either home use 



How to Grow, rack and Ship Turnips. 



109 



(or shipping is the Purple Top Sti-ap-leaved Turnip. It is round and 
flat, white on the bottom, and a reddish purple above the ground, which 
gives it a pleasing appearance, and it ie a very quick grower, and by far 




TURNIPS OR RUTABAGAS 

the best seller. Some truckers sow the Purple Top Globe and White Globe 
with very good results. 

For rutabagas the Yellow Globe is considered the best. Turnips and 
rutabagas should mature in 50 to 70 days from the sowing of the seed. It 
takes four to five pounds of "seed for one acre if broadcasted, one-half the 




TURNIPS OR RUTABAGAS 

amount if sown in drills. In the South they should be sown in August, 
September, October, November, December, January and February. Turnips 
and rutabagas can stand 12 degrees below freezing without injury, or even' 
lower, depending somewhat on their age and condition. 



110 How to Grow, Pack and Sliip Spinach. 

PACKING. 

Turnics and rutabagas should be tied in bunches like beets or radishes. 
Pull from the field when the size is about that of a dollar or slightly larger; 
place six in bunch; if larger, only three in the bunch. While washing 
adds greatly to the appearance of all vegetables, yet it is a poor plan for 
shipping long distances. Vegetables of all description carry better if not 
washed. Clean as well as you can without washing. This is by far the 
best plan. 

Turnips and rutabagas can be shipped in barrels by express, using 15 
to 20 pounds of cracked ice to the barrel, or in crates, well ventilated, they 
can be shipped without ice. 

Associations and individual shippers who intend to ship mixed cars of 
winter vegetables should not ignore turnips, as they will turn out to be 
the most profitable part in the cars. 



HOW TO GROW, PACK AND SHIP SPINACH. 

Spinach is a very important crop for Southern gardeners, as it is easily 
grown, immune from heavy frosts, and always in good demand in all 
Northern markets. As we stated before, the Southern truckgrowens are 
so carried away with glowing accounts of immense profits in potatoes, 
onions, etc., that they are apt to ignore and lose sight of remuner- 
ative crops, such as spinach, and we hope all of our readers will at 
least give some attention to the growing of spinach. As a winter veg- 
etable, spinach sells in the Northern markets from $3 to $6 per barrel, and 
it is no exaggeration to state that 150 barrels can be grown on one acre. 
The main crop in the South is sown in September and October. Spinach 
is best developed and most tender and succulent when grown on rich soil. 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS, 

Spinach prefers a light, warm, well drained soil, containing an abund- 
ance of humus. As we have never known to what extent heavy manuring 
may be carried with this crop for profit, we have come to the conclusion the 
heavier the manuring the heavier the crop. It follows that loose cultiva- 
tion, accompanied with liberal manuring, is the basis of spinach culture. 

In the absence of abundant stable manure, the grower of spinach must 
resort to commercial fertilizers and use about 1,000 pounds to the acre, con- 
taining nitrogen 4 per cent, actual potash 9 per cent, available phosphoric 
acid 8 per cent. 

SEEDS. 

From experience we prefer the Bloomsdale Savoy Curled, as it is a heavy 



How to Grow and Market Squash. 



Ill 



cropper of fine quality, very hardy, succulent leaves, curled and crinkled 
like Savoy cabbage. It standi the longest before running to seed of any 
variety we know of, and we commend it to our readers. 



PLANTING. 



On well prepared land spinach can be sown broadcast. If sown broad- 
cast it takes about twelve pounds of seed to the acre. If sown in drills two 
feet apart, it takes about eight pounds to the acre. We prefer the drill 




SPINACH 

system, as the crop is more easily gathered and some cultivation can be be- 
sixjwed on it. The ground should be in fine condition when spinach is 
sown, neither too wet nor too dry. Cover the seed about one inch deep; 
always use a light roller to pass over the beds or rows after sowing. 

HARVESTING AND PLANTING. 

As soon as spinach attains a fair size and before it becomes discolored 
or tough, it should be cut with a sharp knife, like lettuce. Eemove all 
roots and a few of the outside leaves. When shipped in cars, spinach can 
be packed in barrels or crates, well ventilated; when shipped by express, 
spinach should be shipped in barrels, packed with cracked ice in layers, 
else it is apt to heat and spoil. The amount of ice used should be gauged 
by the distance and time it requires in transit, from 10 to 30 pounds 
of ice for each barrel. 



HOW TO GEOW AND MAKKET SQUASH. 

The squash is one of the most nutritious and vnluable of all vegetables, 
but must be grown and shipped in small quantities, as the demand is 
somewhat limited in all markets. Few farmers and truck growers recog- 
nize the value of both summer and winter squasli as human and animal 
food. An acre of squash is easily grown, and will produce as much food 
for stock as an acre of com. 



113 Tomaioes. 

SOIL. 

Squash will grow rank in most any kind of good garden soil. Fer- 




SQUASH 

tilizers, either stable manure or commercial, will assist greatly in forcing 
and increasing the crop. 

SEED. 

For table use, there are three kinds: The Early White Patty Pan Squash, 
the Yellow Crookneck Squash, and the winter squash, called the Hubbard. 

PLANTING AND CULTIVATING. 

The Patty Pan being n Ijush variety, can be planted in rows three feet 
apart and two feet apart in the rows. This is the earliest 'of all squash, 
and the only kind it pays in ship to Northern markets. The other squash 
-may be grown for home use, or sold in local markets. Squash should be 
packed in hampers, bushel crates or hampers, by express or carlots. 



TOMATOES. 

HOW TO GROW, CULTIVATE, PICK, PACK AND SHIP TOMATOES. 

Tomatoes are by far the mo,st important vegetable crop grown in the 
South for Northern markets. The growing and shipping of tcmaloes is 
also more difficult than any other crop, and large profits, from the culture 
of tomatoes, can only be -obtained through knowledge and experience. 
Earliness, qualities, appearance, selection and packing are the predominat- 
ing features. It is therefore our intention to make tomato culture, both 
for spring and fall crop, as complete as possible, so as to assist, especial- 
ly the beginner, to bring tomato mlture to a successful issue. 

SOIL. 

It is by no means necessary to select rich, heavy ground to grow toma- 
toes on; in fact, light, sandy soil, well drained, sloping to the south, is 
much preferable. 



'r<)mat<!px. 



ii;j 



Fi:i;'ni.i/.i;it. 



For an early crop to push the young plants to maturity, specific manures, 
judiciously applied, form useful agents and are used hy all well posted 




'loMAI'OKS 

market gardeners. From .")(iu ])Ounds to 1,UU0 pounds of a well mixed 
high grade fertilizer and 50 pounds nitrate of soda should be used per 
acre, either broadcast or in drills, thoroughly mixed with the soil. 

VARIETIES AND SEED. 

There are many excellent varieties of tomatoes, some gardeners pre- 
ferring one and some another. All agree, however, that the Livingstone 
Favorite, the Livingstone Beauty, the Stone, Dwarf Champion and Acme 
are in the lead for commercial use. 

SOWING THE SEED. 

The seed should be sown in hotbeds about ten weeks before it will be 
safe to plant in the open field. The young plants should be transplanted 
several times in cold frame to make plants stocky. 

PLANTING. 

When the ground is warm and all danger of frost is over, the plants 
should be very carefully transplanted. As the tomatoes like sunshine and 
ventilation, we recommend planting further ^ipart than usual, say, make 
the rows four feet apart, and set the plants three or four feet in the rows. 

CULTIVATION. 

The tomato, like other vegetables, loves and thrives best with frequent 
cultivation both ways with horse cultivators, followed by good hoeing. 
This also serves to retain the moisture. 

Nearly every tomato grower in East Texas, where tomato growing has 
become an important industry, trains all the tomato plants to stakes three 
feet hio;h. tied with string in two or three places. The tomatoes are also 



114 How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States. 

thinned out, by pinching off the excessive suckers. Tomatoes, to ripen 
properly, must have sunshine, and the foliage must be reduced to ac- 
complish this object, 

PACKING. 

The most important feature that brings tomato culture to a successful 
issue is selection and packing. The most favorite package is the four- 
basket crate. 

Tomatoes should be graded as to size and color — Nos. 1, 2, 3. No. 1, 
the ripest, for close shipment; No. 2, for further shipments, and No. 3 for 
farthest shipment. It is folly to run the three grades together, as loss 
invariably follows this mode. Small^ inferior tomatoes should not be 
shipped at all; when you place inferior tomatoes with your good toma- 
toes, the good stock has to pay the freight on the poor, and you will like- 
ly get nothing for your shipments. It pays to grade — while this applies 
to all vegetables, it certainly does to tomatoes. The standard packages 
for tomatoes are the four and six-basket crates. 

A FALL CROP OF TOMATOES. 

The directions for growing tomatoes in the fall are nearly the same 
as for a spring crop, with the exception that there is no hotbed required 
to grow the plants. Sow the seed in a clean, open place, wnere the air 
can circulate freely, and keep a sharp lookout for the Spanish flies. Do not 
sow the seeds too thickly, else your plants will grow too tall and spindling. 
Cultivation should be done oftener in the fall, as the usual drouth may 
xuin the crop. Clean cultivation also checks insects. In the fall, as a 
usual occurrence, the insects are very much worse than in the early 
spring, and it may be necessary to spray a fall crop of tomatoes several 
times. Directions and formula for dusting or spraying tomatoes will be 
found in part 4 of this book, The Modern Guide. 



HOW TO GROW TOBACCO IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 

SEED. 

Only pure Havana or Sumatra seed should be planted, as it has been 
demonstrated that these varieties grow best here, besides bringing the- 
highest market price. The Havana is grown for fillers and wrappers and 
the Sumatra for wrappers only. 

QUANTITY OF SEED TO SOW. 

Tobacco seeds are very small, smaller even than mustard seed — one ounce 



How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States. 115 

contains about four hundred thousand seeds— many of them, however, may 
not sprout, but allowing for this, one ounce should produce enough plants 
for five acres. 

SEED BED. 

In selecting a site for seed bed, it is important that it should be con- 
venient to water, as the young plants will require watering from time to 




TOBACCO 

time. Select new land; an open space in the woods is a good location, or 
by the side of a fence where it has not been cultivated. Give it a southern 
slope, where the sun can shine on it most of the day. Begin preparing the 
seed bed about January 15, by burning with dry wood or with brush. Do 
not pile the wood in a heap, but keep near the ground by replenishing the 
fire from time to time until the soil has been thoroughly burned to th(* 
depth of three or four inches. This is done to kill all vegetable and in- 
sect life, and give the young plants plenty of time to get a good start be- 
fore vegetation begins. After burning the bed it should be broken up to a 
depth of about two and one-half inches, and thoroughly pulverized. Ee- 
move all foreign substance with a rake, and the surface should be left 
in a "level and porous condition. Soil should not be worked deeper tiian 
two and one-half inches, as it would prevent the moisture from rising and 
might ■ bring to the surface seeds of grass and weeds, which would quickly 
strangle the young plant. Frame this bed on four sides with one-inch 
boards twelve inches wide, placed on edge; bed may be of any desired 
length, but it is best not to have it over three feet wide, so that all parts 
of it can be reached from either side. A bed fifty feet by three feet will 
contain from fifteen to twenty thousand young plants, so the planter can 
make his bed or beds any length to get the desired number of plants. It 



116 How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States. 

is best to have more plants than are actually needed, so as to have the 
pick of the hardiest ones for transplanting. A support for the other 
covering should be placed across the beds three feet apart, and a ditch dug 
around them to drain the surplus water. 

SOWING THE SEED. 

Mix the seed in the proportion of a half ounce to four quarts of wood 
ashes, meal or loose earth, and sow this broadcast over the bed, one table- 
spoon of seed to 100 square yards. Meal or ashes are preferred to earth, 
as the seeds show plainer and it can be seen if the sowing has been evenly 
done. Hold the hand close to the ground while sowing, so the wind will 
not blow the seed away. After sowing, go over the bed gently with a brush 
or broom to disturb the surface, being careful not to bury the seed too 
deep. The distance through which the young shoots should pass should 
be as short as possible. A light roller should be rolled over the bed to firm 
the soil, or a board can be laid upon the bed and tramped upon, which 
will answer the same purpose. Sprinkle the bed thoroughly and keep it 
moist continuously, but do not put enough water so that it will stand on 
the surface. 

PROTECTING THE PLANTS. 

A cheese cloth covering should be at once placed over the bed and held 
in position by headless nails, so it can be easily removed. The covering 
protects the beds from insects and the direct rays of the sun. It retains 
the moisture and makes the humidity temperature more uniform. Two 
weeks before transplanting the beds should be uncovered just after sunrise 
for an hour or two, and the time of exposure increased from day to day 
until two or three days before transplanting — when the covering should 
be left off. entirely. This makes the plants hearty and vigorous, so that 
they will stand the shock of transplanting. The covering should not be 
taken off except for the purposes of sprinkling the bed and wetting it. 
The beds should be kept clean from all foreign growth, and if insects 
get in, spray the plants with a solution of paris green, using a teaspoonful 
to two gallons of water. If a large crop is to be planted, it is best not 
to sow all the beds at the same time, but allow from ten to fifteen days' 
time to elapse between the sowing of each. The farmer can use his own 
discretion, as the beds can be sowed from January 20th to February 28th, 
cr even later. 

PREPARING THE SOIL. 

The land should be plowed in February, and rough manures may be 
Worked in; cotton seed hulls are a very good fertilizer. Break the soil 



How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States. 117 

deep, so that the roots may have a chance to go down, otherwise the plant 
will be stunted and heavy rains will not penetrate — the top soil becoming 
soaked — which would soon drown the roots and cause them to wilt and be- 
come useless. Just before transplanting the ground should be re-broken 
by a cutaway hajrow or similar instrument to the deptti of three inches, 
and thoroughly pulverized, 

TRANSPLANTING. 

The plants will be large enough to transplant within nine or ten weeks 
after sowing the seed; early planting saves much labor in fighting the 
worms and insects, but do not transplant until all danger of frost is past. 
Early planting also secures the benefit of the spring and winter rains. In 
Texas transplanting can commence as early as March 10th, plants to be 
from four to six inches high before pulling from the beds. Before pulling, 
water tlie bed thoroughly, so the soil will give as little resistance to the 
release of the roots as possible. No lump should be allowed to adhere to 
the roots. Plants should be pulled one at a time, selecting the largest 
and strongest. All plants do not reach transplanting size at the same 
time, consequently the beds will have to be pulled over several times before 
all the plants are u'sed up. After pulling plants recover the beds and do 
not uncover again until the plants remaining in the beds are large enough 
for transplanting. Bed must be thoroughly watered after each pulling. 
Care should be taken to pack the plants straight in the baskets or boxes in 
which they are can-ied to the fields to set out, and sufficiently tight to 
hold them in that position, otherwise they will become crooked and make 
it hard to set them properly. After the plants are well pulled the beds 
ehould be raked over and a heavy covering of straw or leaves be put on 
to prevent the growth of weeds; otherwise the beds will be covered with 
a rank growth and new ones will have to be made for another year. Trans- 
planting may be done by hand or machine; the machine is recommended to 
be the best mode of transplanting, as it sets the plants even and straight, 
and sets from four to six acres a day, according to the character of the 
surface of the field; it also supplies the water to each plant, covers the 
loots, and the plants start to growing quicker, gaining from five to ten days 
on the plants set by hand. Plants should be set out late in the afternoon 
or on a cloudy day just after a rain. They should be pulled from the 
bed early in the morning, when the dew is on them, as the leaves are 
les=i liable to be injured. After pulling the plants the baskets in which 
they are packed should be covered with a damp cloth and put in a cool 
place until set out; the rows should be three and a half feet apart, and the 
plants set frojn one to one and one-fourth feet apart in the rows, accord- 
ing to the fertility of the soil. 



118 Mow to Orow Tobacco in the Southern States. 

CULTIVATING. 

The tobacco fields should be kept clean from grass, weeds and trash. 
As soon as the plants stand up they should be cultivated with a small sweep 
or cultivator, throwing a little of the light earth to the plant, stirring the 
middle of the row about three inches deep. As soon as the roots begin 
to reach out the soil is stirred only deep enough to destroy the weeds and 
igrass and form a loose surface. Do not cut or disturb the roots, as it 
checks the plants' growth and tend? to make the leaves coarse and woody. 
Stir the soil after a heavy rain to admit air and prevent excessive evapora- 
tion. The best cultivation should be given just before the plants are topped, 
leaving the plant on a rounded bed with a water furrow between the rows 
to carry off the water after a heavy rain. 

PESTS. 

Trouble with insects begins as soon as the plants are set, and as soon as 
set it is well to dust them with a mixture of paris green and meal, using 
one tablespoonful of the poison to a gallon of meal. When they get larger 
the bud worm appears. The egg is deposited by a small brown moth on 
the top leaf, which it destroys in a few hours after hatching. Paris green 
is the remedy used to destroy all pests on tobacco, used as a powder mixed 
with flour or meal or as a solution; if the latter, mix half pound of paris 
green into sixty gallons of water, or for smaller quantities, mix one tea- 
spoonful of the poison to two gallons of water. This should be sprayed on 
the plants as often a? necessary, but do not rely on the poison entirely. 
The best way to get rid of the tobacco worm is to go after him in the 
early morning and destroy him by hand. There have been several traps 
invented to catch the moth, and considerable help has been gained ther&- 
;from, but, like the paris green, they do not catch all of them, and a con- 
stant watch has to be kept, otherwise the worms will play havoc in a short 
time. When the leaf begins to ripen no more poison should be used, as it 
will injure the quality of the leaf. 

SUCKERING. 

When the suckers begin to appear at the base of the leaves, they must 
not be allowed to grow over two or three inches, but be plucked off as soon 
as possible, otherwise they will draw from the vitality of the plant and af- 
fect the quality of the leaf. Two suckers generally come at the base of 
each leaf, but not all at the same time; it is, therefore, necessary to go 
over the field once or twice a week, at the same time keeping a lookout for 
worms. 



Hoiv to Grow Tobacco in the Sonthcrn. Staffs. 119 

TOPPING. 

It is a disputed question as to when to top the plant. If for wrappers 
the plant must be topped higher than for fillers, from twenty to thirty 
leaves being left on the stalk, according to the vigor of the plant. If for 
fillers, from twelve to sixteen leaves should be left on the stalk — the more 
leaves left the thinner the leaf; heavy body leaves are wanted for fillers, 
consequently the plants are topped lower down than for wrappers. More 
leaves should be left on a hardy plant than a weak one. This will have 
to be left to the judgment 'of the topper. In some cases in Florida the 
plants are not topped at all, but the plant is allowed to bloom and go to 
seed. 

CUTTING. 

Great care must be taken to cut the plant just when it is ripe, for if cut 
green or over-ripe it will cure with an inferior flavor and quality. The 
time when a plant is ripe and ready to cut is a matter of judgment and 
experience. There is a slight change in the color of the leaf from a ^ark 
green to a lighter shade, when it should be cut. Cutting should not be 
done when dew or rain is on the plant, as the water is liable to leave dark 
spots on the leaves. After cutting, the plant should be allowed to wilt for 
several hours before being taken to the barn, to prevent breaking of the 
leaves, which are very brittle when first cut. Specially prepared racks should 
be prepared and placed in a shady place in the field, on which should be 
hung the laths on which the plants have been strung, 10 to 12 plants 
being placed on each lath. With wrappers the leaves are pulled from the 
stalk as they ripen and placed in baskets or shallow boxes and carried to 
the sheds, where they are strung on twine or wire, face to face, and back 
to back, thirty or forty to a string, according to size of leaf; the twine 
or wire is then stretched on a four-foot lath and hung in the barn. The 
leaves are never allowed to lay on the ground. When priming is practiced 
the leaf should be allowed to stay on the stalk until ripe. As soon as the 
leaves are pulled from the stalk, they cease to mature at once; when the 
whole plant is cut the leaves will continue to mature. In hanging tobacco 
the butts are pierced by a sharp pointed stick and strung on the laths in 
this way. butt end up; the laths are then hung in the barn for a month o^ 
six weeks, until the sap is dried out of them. They should be taken down 
in damp weather, after the leaves have absorbed sufficient moisture to make 
them pliable and less liable to break. 

TREATING THE LEAF BEFORE STRIPPED. 

Close attention has to be paid to the leaf while on the stalk in the barn. 
They should not be allowed to become too dry or too wet. In dry weather 



120 How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States. 

the ventilators should be opened at night to let the leaf absorb moisture, 
and closed in the day time to prevent it drying out too rapidly. In wet 
weather keep the ventilators closed entirely, or open them only for a short 
time, if the tobacco appears to be too dry. In a very damp season it is 
sometimes necessary to use artificial heat to prevent mold. It is not ad- 
visable to build fires on the floor unless the smoke can make its escape from 
the barn without coming in contact with the tobacco, as nothing ruins 
tobacco more than smoke. Small stoves are preferable ii extra heat has 
to be applied. 

STEIPPING. 

In stripping the leaves from the stalks they should be divided into threw 
classes, viz. : bottom, middle and top leaves. The leaves are tied from twelve 
to sixteen together in what are known by tobacco men as "hands." Only 
a sufficient quantity of tobacco should be taken down at one time that 
can be stripped in a day, and then not until it is soft and pliable. It 
should be bulked together to keep it from drying out. After it is tied in 
hands it is ready for the packer, and the farmer's work is finished. 

WRAPPERS. 

The finest wrappers are grown under shade. A framework is put up 
nine feet high and covered with canvas or thin slats, and walled in all 
around with canvas or boards; this controls the humidity and tempera- 
ture, and prevents the direct rays of the sun from beating on the plants. 
The leaves grown under shade are very much thinner and their commercial 
value much greater than the tobacco grown in the open field. The leaves 
are allowed to remain on the stalk until thoroughly ripe, when they are 
primed and hung in the barn as outlined heretofore. Cultivating is the 
.same as for the open field tobacco. The cost of building this shade is 
about $300 per acre, but, like a fence, will last for years if properly taken 
care of, and the returns will justify this extra cost. Wrappers must be 
handled with the greatest care so as not to break or bruise them, and in 
no case should they be allowed to lie on the ground, but should be placed 
smooth in baskets or boxes and taken to the barn to be strung on wire or 
twine and hung up. 

LABOR. 

The amount of labor to employ in raising a crop of tobacco varies with 
conditions and management; one man should be able to cultivate five or 
six acres in the South, and have some time to attend to other things about 
tlie farm, but when he is working in the tobacco field he must give his whole 
attention to the tobacco and nothing else. Women and children do a large 



How to Grow Tobacco in the Sontlicrn. State's. 121 

amount of the worming and suckering, and do it better than men, as they 
are more deft with their hands and quicker and much cheaper. There will 
be plenty of work for men if they are conscientious workers, but a lazy 
man has no business in a tobacco field, for unless he attends strictly to 
business the crop will very soon be ruined. 



PART III. 



FRUIT AND NUT CULTURE. 



THE HOME AND COMMERCIAL 
ORCHARD. 



The profits from fruit culture are so various and depending so much 
on certain conditions that were we to go exhaustively into the planting 
of the home or commercial orchard this entire book would hardly be large 
enough to accommodate all that might be said on the subject. 

Our readers are well aware that our aim is brevity, touching pAly the 
vital points of the subjects in this work. ■ . ,; 

As far as the home orchard is concerned, planted only for home comfort 
and use, the selection of the proper fruits to provide a succession of fruits, 
setting the orchards and cultivation would be about all the knowledge re^ 
quired, but when orchards are set out as a commercial proposition or profit 
therefrom the object, there arise many other conditions to insure success 
or failure for the orchard. 

The main question would be to reduce production of the fruit to a 
minimum cost, by the proper selection of fertile fruit soils; land subject 
either to drainage or irrigation ; textures of the subsoil ; easy cultivation of 
the topsoils; timber or other protection from severe windstorms, or prox- 
imity to market or railroad loading stations — these items may be said to 
constitute the fundamental principles of successful orcharding, just as 
sure as the lack of any of the above requirements would mean partial, if 
not complete, failure. 

The ideal soil for fruit trees, grape vines, fruit bushes or berries is a 
sandy, porous loam, about eighteen inches deep, underlaid by a light col- 
lored clay or gravel, and subject to absolute' drainage, eight or more feet 
deep. Therefore slopes of land are always preferable for the orchard in 
the South. Heavy, soggy, low topsoils, underlaid with heavy, sticky dark 
clay, should be avoided, as the root rot, blight and fungi growth would 
be inevitable consequences on such unfriendly soils. 

MOISTURE AND IRRIGATION. 

In- any of the Southern States, where the average rainfall is above forty 
inches per annum, it would not be necessary to consider irrigation at 
lall, but where the arinuar'rainf all is less than thirty inches, like in the 
semi-arid Southwestern States, irrigation must be seriously considered 
and provided for in setting out a commercial orchard to guard againsi 
failures. 



126 



Apples. 



PROXIMITY TO MARKETS AND LOADING STATIONS. 

The importance of proximity of commercial orchards to loading stations 
is recognized to such an extent by professional orchardists that most com- 
mercial orchards are provided with sidetracks or spurs, where cars are 
eet and loaded quickly and with the utmost economy, it follows that all 
orchards should be planted close to the commercial highways. It is even 
of decided advantage to locate the orchard near several railroads, as the 
competition as a rule provides better facilities, and the increased service 
offers more daily trains in reaching different markets. 

In the coast countries and open prairie land of West Texas or Oklahoma, 
where heavy windstorms are of frequent occurrence and where natural 
forests are lacking for protection against these high winds, artificial wind- 
breaks should be planted with bois d'arc hedges or catalpas. Cottonwood 
trees have proven undesirable for windbreaks. 



APPLES. 

PLANTING THE ORCHARD. 

The distance apart of the apple trees in the orchard differs somewhat 
with the varieties; large standard kinds, like the Ben Davis, Winesap or 




Maidenblush, should be planted thirty feet apart, each way; smaller kinds 
like the June Red, Astrachan, Gano, American Queen or others may be 
planted twenty-five or twenty feet apart, each way. There is nothing 



Apples; Varieties, Cultivation, Picking. 127 

gained in crowding an orchard. On receipt of the trees from the nursery, 
trim the roots and top close and set the young trees naturally in holes 
dug about three feet in diameter. 

BEST VARIETIES. 

In planting an apple orchard either for home or commercial use, the 
main points are to plant such varieties which have proven indigenous to the 
Southern soils and climate, and also the kinds which ripen in succession, 
to afford a harvest of apples every summer and fall month. 

For June harvest in the South, plant Early Harvest, Red Astrachan and 
Red June. 

For July plant San Jacinto or Summer Queen. 

For August plant Jonathan, Maidenblush and Bledsoe. 

For Sepiember plant Twenty Ounce or Red Winter. 

For October plant Winesap, Ben Davis, Arkansas Black, Gano, Texas 
Red or Arkansas. 

CULTIVATION AND FERTILIZERS. 

The first five years in the apple orchard should be mainly devoted to 
establishing the young orchard, to a sound and healthy growth. More 
attention should be paid to the growth of the trees than attempting to 
induce the bearing of fruits. The young trees .should be trained by judici- 
ous trimming to assume symmetrical tops; the bodies should be protected 
against borers, rabbits and other varmits. 

In the home orchard there can be no objection to growing corn, potatoes 
and other truck in the young orchard, provided the land is again en- 
riched by humus and manures, to offset the drain of nutrition absorbed by 
the crops. If this is not done the orchard must suffer in consequence. 
jOn the opposite, in the commercial orchard no crops should be grown, 
to take away and impoverish the soil at the expense of the trees. Legu- 
minous crops, like cow peas, velvet beans, etc., should be sown and turned 
under in the green state. It is often wonderful to what a high state of 
perfection an apple orchard may be brought by the above method. 

Observation has taught us in the past that clean cultivation for the first 
five years is essential and will always be crowned with succesa. The new 
horticulture method of allowing a sod to grow in the orchard may be applied 
after years, when the trees have attained full growth, and even then it is 
only a question of time when the grass and sod will finally kill out the 
orchard. 

HOW TO PICK APPLES. 

Wliere farmers are not generally interested in the fruit business be- 
yond what is necessary for home consumption, it is nevertheless just as 



1S8 ...•.■■A-^ples;.TMnning,:Tree Borers : 

importent that their applies' should keep well through the winter.. Much, 
of this keeping quality depends on the way they are handled. Winter 
apples should not be shaken ofif the trees, but picked, and there is a knack, 
in picking apples, as in everything else. 

An apple should be picked ofP— not pulle'd off — and to do this requires 
a 'little -kriaek. Placing the fihgeri against the stem of the fruit and gently 
turning it badlcwardv as it were, or, in varietiiss with short stems, simply 
turning the .apple back or sidewise a little, will release it from the limb 
(with the steam still attached t'O the. apple, and not pulled. out of it, as 
isi.of ten' the casjB ill, average picking. It is quite essential to the appear- 
ance of the fruit, as well as its keeping quality, that the stem remain 
on the apple. . • ■ '■>-,■ i.; 

For packing apples foir market read Part One of the book. 

THINmNG APPLES. 

Thinning the fruit is a practice always advised and is exceedingly prof- 
itable. Some people think it does not pay, but there is hardly today ai, 
successful fruit grower in the country who docs not thin his fruit, and 
this^ thinning is the l<ey to his success over tho?e who have favorable con- 
ditions but do not put out the first-class product. The fancy fruit and' 
price is obtained by proper thinning. It makes fruit larger, of better 
color, reserves the vitality of the tree, destroys disease-infested and im- 
perfect specimens and tends to cause the tree to produce an annual crop. 

All the fruit must be picked sooner or later and many more apples will 
be worth picking if encouraged by thinning. An orchardist in Southern 
Oregon thins his apples to one on a spur, and the result is that 90 per 
cent of the entire crop sells in the three and one-half tier class. Deter- 
mine then for yourself if it pays. 

Alwa\^s thin to one fruit on a spur and where the spurs are close all 
the fruit should be removed on a few of the spurs. The best apple of 
the cluster is the one to leave. The earlier the thinning the better, as the 
remaining fruit receives all the energy from the beginning of its growth. 
The thinning should be done when the fruit is about the size of a hazelnut. 
It sometimes requires more judgment and discrimination to thin fruit 
properly than it does to gather it. The cost of thining depends upon the 
cost of labor, and the condition of the trees. Usually the price wiir 
range from fifteen to eighty cents per tree. 

Do not let your trees bear heavily while young, as every fruit they pro-' 
duce ruins the form of the tree. There is plenty of time for trees to bear 
after they have received the proper training and preparation for future - 
usefulness. . Some men boast of the wonderful yield of their two and three- 
yjgar-old apple trees, but they do nol realize what that -means in the;future. 



'■'■'-■ :;■ • ' APPL& TREE BORERS. ;■■; '".-^'^ c' 

Th'e'pest of young ^frees will' 'soon begin to flfejiosit their eggs in crevices 
of bark and oh sunburned brandies knd limljS;' The^e eggs hatch in a 
few d^ys and the young borer works its way -into the b-ark of the tree.- 
In a few days •afte'r thi^ a' sinall wet-spot can be 'seen'on the bark, and by 
the presence of the wet spot the bo-rers may be discovered and destroyed. 
It is a simpk matter to .cut out a .small piece oi-batk; and find the little 
white worm before it hasreachcd the wogd'of th^rtree.. A little attention 
to this during Jui)e and July is worth more, to protect the trees from 
borers than all the tree paints that we have ever tested. 

' APPLE SCAB. ' 

There is no fruit disease more familiar to the fruit grower than apple 
scab, sometimes called black spot. This disease' is the result of a fungus 
growth which makes scabby spots on the fruit, and also attacks the leaves 
and newly-grown shoots. 

Sometimes the infection spreads very rapidly, beginning early in the 
spring. It dwarfs the young leaves, many times kills the foliage, causing 
the fruit to shrivel, and in some instances the entire crop is rumed. Be- 
sides this, the disease works serious loss by dwarfing the apples that do 
mature. One statistician estimates that the lo5s in Missouri alone from 
this disease is nearly $500,000 per year. 

It has been found that three applications of Bordeaux-arsenical mixture 
gives the best results. The first application should be made just after 
blossoms fall, arsenic poison being used to destroy the coddling moth. 
The second should be madx? about two weeks later, and a third about two 
weeks after the second. Some advise the first application to be just before 
the leaf buds open, and the experience of a number of fruit growers in 
the Ozark regions shows that this is the better practice. 



PEARS. 



The many failures in pear culture in the extreme southern ^tarfe^of the 
United States has had a tendency to deter many from entering pear cul- 
ture. These failures are partially due to lack of theproper drainage and 
the proper varieties for the Southern fields. Pears will grow and do well 
m any soil where apples will grow, but pears, like the apple, will never 
grow and live and become of commercial value on flat prairie lands in 
the South. The laud, to begin with, must be rolling; /Gravelly hillside^! 
are highly suitable for pear culture, and may be utilised for that purpose.' 

Pears like the Le Conte or KeifEer may be propagated by cuttings. Cut- 



130 



Pears. 



tings are made from pieces of limb about six inches long and stuck in 
the ground where the tree is to stand, or put out in the nursery row 
for one or two years and then set out in the orchard. Other varieties must 
be propagated by grafting or budding into a hardy pear stock. In the 
South the Le Conte has proven a favorite for the stock. 

PLANTING. 

Pear trees should be set out 20x20 or 30x30 for the large varieties, as 
the Keiffer and Le Conte. Free access of winds and sunshine conduces 
to the health of all pear trees and reduces the ravages of blight. 

CULTIVATION. 

Light crops of all kinds may be planted in the young pear orchard with 
profit, and even of benefit to the trees, and, aside from these crops, the 
cultivation should be clean for the first five years. 




PEAR 

The only varieties of pears which have proven successful in the Southern 
fruit garden are the Wilder, Bartlett, Garber, Anjou, Keiffer and Le Conte. 

i PEAR BLIGHT. 

The presence of the blight may be recognized by the black, wilted leaves 
and twigs in the top of the tree.' These dead twigs and leaves cling to 
the tree and the discoloration spreads rapidly over the older wood on the 
same branch. In many cases the twigs and leaves look as if they had been 
killed by fire. The disease is more noticeable on the young shoots and 
leaves than on the trunk and larger limbs. It works also most rapidly 
on the young shoots. 



Peaches from, a Commercial Standpoint. 131 

The only known remedy is to cut and burn all diseased wood. The 
branches should be cut several inches below the lowest dead bark. There 
are many supposed preventives and cures for the pear blight, but unfor- 
tunately these do not seem to do all that is claimed for them. Almost 
every year some man announces that a preventive for pear blight has 
been found. These announcements are not followed with the work that 
proves the value of the materials. ^ 

HOW TO RIPEN PEARS, AND OTHER HARD VARIETIES. 

Pick them carefully and put in a cool place, not more than six inches 
deep, and cover over with sacks or a wagon sheet just as soon as seeds are 
fully black. If trees are not too full and fruit is well colored and good 
size, it will by this treatment develop a very good flavor for so coarse ai 
pear, and sell readily for a good price. But where trees are allowed; 
to bear too full, and the fruit only grows to half size, they can hardly 
be handled in a way to make them fairly eatable. After storing, they must 
be looked over frequently, and any of them showing signs of decay re- 
moved. In sections of country where rot prevails, as is the case to some 
extent with us here, the best way to get the most out of the crop in casb 
is to take off and dispose of them for preserving purposes, just as soon 
as seeds are black. After housed about ten days they begin to mellow and 
turn yellow, when they are ready to pack in either one-bushel boxes or 
one-half bushel baskets, and shipped to market. 



PEACHES. 



The peach from a commercial standpoint is the most profitable of all 
fruits. It is one of the quickest of horticultural products to bring results^ 
trees frequently coming into bearing the third and even the second year, 
and yet peach growing is attended with many mishaps, some of which 
may be guarded against and some over which we have no control. Con- 
ducive to failures is the wrong locality, improper soil, lack of drainage, 
planting diseased trees, the peach blight, peach borers, the yellows, and, 
last, late frost in the spring, which probably destroys more peaches than 
all the other causes together. In the South lack of snows, warm weather 
in January or early February, cause the sap to rise and buds to swell' 
prematurely, and when these conditions are followed by extreme frosts 
the loss of an entire crop of an orchard or an entire State may follow, and! 
yet one of the most prominent peach growers in the South, cultivating^ 
several thousands of acres, states if he can make three crops out of 
every five years he is satisfied. The average in the Southern States has 
never fallen below that estimate; in fact, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. 



132 



Fe'jckc.-i from a Conirncrcial Standpoint. 



hdv6 shown a better average in the last ten years, the most complete 
failtire in Texas 'occurring in the spring of 19Q7. ;. 

The expense of planting and caring for a peach orchard is small as 
compared with many other fruits. Prices for trees are low, and the prep- 
aration of the land does not necessarily have to be as thorough as for many 
other fruits.. The trees are easy to make live if first-class stock is planted. 
• In planting peaches, it must be borne in mind that it is of utmost im- 




• PEACHES. 

poi-tance that proper varieties are selected for the particular section in 
jwhich they are to be grown. While a few varieties can be successfully 
Crown .over a more or loss widely extended area, most varieties are limited 
in their range of adaptability. 

Experience in the Southern States has shown that the Persian strain 
of peaches, so much grown in the Northern States, are unfit and un- 
popular for Southern culture. The strain of Northern Chinese, which 
includes Elbertas and many other fine varieties, is more suited to what 
we term the Cotton Belt. Also Spanish types of peaches, which include 
rnany native kinds that bave originated in Georgia, Florida and the Gulf 
Coast, are next: 'to Northern Chinese more preferable, as both the Honey 
peach' and Pinto owe their origin to that stock. . ' 



Peaches: Phuil'mcj. Varieties for Succession. 133 

SELECTION OF PEACH ORCHARD. " - V^ .:-.-.,. 

In selecting a suitable locality for a peach orchard the main points are 
a light, mellow soil, underlaid with a porous clay or fine gravel, subject 
to absolute and free drainage. Therefore light slopes are always pre- 
ferable. To plant a peach orchard on heavy, level, prairie land is too hazard- 
ous, as one semi-tropical heavy rain, which is liable to occur during the 
hottest part of the summer, in July or August, may destroy a whole orchard 
by scalding the roots. 

PLANTING. 

Peaches should be planted eighteen feet each way, requiring 135 trees 
to the acre. 

Fall and early winter planting always give the best results. Dig the 
lioles from two to three feet deep, filling in with top soil. Cut off all 
broken and bruised roots — slanting cut from the under side. Set the trees 
two inches deeper than in nursery, slanting at an angle of 40 degrees to 
the southwest, or in direction of the 2 o'clock sun, the prevailing wind 
being from this direction. Trees set out this way and headed low, the top 
protects the body from the hot rays of the afternoon sun during summer. 

Glean cultivation should be given from the start by frequent and shal- 
low stirring of the soil, maintaining a loose dirt mulch under each tree. 
Some hoed crop may be grown between the rows during the first two years. 
The land should then be given up to the trees, unless a cover crop is de- 
sirable, which sliould be rye for winter and cov/ peas for summer, plow- 
ing each under at the proper season. A liberal supply of barnyard and 
commercial fertilizer should be applied broadcast. During the wdnter 
from one-fourth' to one-half the year's growth should be cut back and an 
effort made to form a low, round, symmetrical head. All dead limbs and 
those rubbing each other should he removed. When the peach seed has 
hardened, thin the fruit on the tree. A temporary packing shed should 
be erected near the orchard, with a table running through the center. 
Near one end \)f this table should be a small canning outfit, with which 
all over-ripe fruit should be put up for the local market. Neat, attrac- 
tive crates must be used and nothing packed but sound fruit, uniform in 
size and color, w^ith.the grower's name stamped on the crate. 

The net profits range all the way from 25 cents to $4 per tree. ]\Iuch 
depends on the variety, and general intelligence of the grower. It behooves 
the grower to keep abreast of the times by reading several fruit journals, 
cultivating the mind as well as the soil. 

VARIETIES TO PLANT IN THE SOUTH FOR. SUCCESSION. 

Either for the home orchard, for family use, or comm^^rcial purpose, a 



134 



Appricots. 



peach orchard should be planted with the view of harvesting peaches all 
through the summer and fall months, from May to November. Aside from 
the continuous profits from the orchard, it also lessens the risk of com- 
plete loss by late frosts, as all varieties seldom bloom all at one time. 

For May harvest plant the Alexander, Bidwells Early, the Sneed, Waldo, 
Dewey or Texas King. 

For June harvest plant Climax, Bidwells Late, Imperial, Triana and 
Angel. 

For July and August harvest plant Elberta, Stump, Chinese Cling, 
Florida, Crawfords Late, Thurber and Countess. 

For September and October harvest plant Henrietta, Estella, Gibbons 
October, Victoria, Barnes or Everbearing, from early to late. 

For picking, packing and shipping peaches see Part One of the Modem 
IGuide. 



APRICOTS. 

Apricots are strains of the peach, more diminutive in size and of pecu- 
liar, pleasing flavor. The most of the apricots on the American market 
are grown in California. Of late years the semi-arid West, as Colorado, 
New Mexico and Arizona, is producing fine specimens of apricots. The 




APRICOTS 

trees, being of smaller size, may be planted fifteen feet apart each way. 
With the exception of this distance apart, the planting and cultivation of 
the apricot is similar to peach culture. 

Apricot trees being tender, are more liable to casualties from late frosts 
and insects, and have not proven very profitable so far in the South and 



Plums; Soils for Planting, Enemies. 



135 



should not be planted to any extent in the Cotton Belt. Favorite varieties 
are the Early Golden, Moorpark and the Royal Apricot. 



PLUMS. 
Plums are very profitable fruit crops, as the chances by casualties are 
considerably less than any other fruits. Very seldom a plum crop is an 




PLUM 

entire failure. The trees are hardy, vigorous growers, and adjust them- 
selves to most any soil, climate and even the poorest surroundings. Quite 
frequently we meet the .sight of a plum tree loaded with luscious fruit, 
where most any other fruit tree would perish. Black land, heavy clay 
soils, sandy land, rocky hillsides are all acceptable to the plum. Its worst 
enemies are late frosts and the curculio, an insect which without proper 
precautions may destroy an entire crop. For the remedy and spraying 
the curculio see Part Four of this book. 



13C • Persmimons ; Japanese Varieties. 

--Ib the orchard plum trees may be set fifteen feet apart each way. Clean 
cultivation the first few years and the application of manures is recom- 
mendable. Plums are always in demand in the ripe state, and for pre- 
serving the plum tree deserves a prominent place on the home farm and 
in the commercial orchard. 




PLUMS 
VARIETIES. 

The Japanese kinds, such as the G-onzales, Abundance, Burbank, Satsuma, 
and the Burford Hybrid are the most popular and profitable. 

For American types plant the Milton, Clifford, Wayland, America niicl 
Wards Red. 



PERSIMMONS. 

The cultivation of the persimmon tree in the United States is rather 
limited, but steadily on the increase, as the showy, sweet and remarkable 
Japanese varieties are better known. The Japanese have for centuries 
made the growing of persimmons almost a specialty. Every year several 
new varieties are imported to this country. As far as flavor is concerned, 
they are about all alike to us, and we have never seen any persimmon that 
would beat the genuine old native, frost-covered home persimmon in the 
late- fall. 

JAPAN PERSIMMONS. 

Pei'simmons are easily grown, have few enemies and are prolific bearers.' 
The fruit stands shipment well, is large, strikingly handsome and to most 
plalates- very delicious. When properly handled, properly marketed, dis- 
played on fruit-stands at just the right stage of ripeness, its exceptional 
bfsauty and unusual flavor command good, in fact often fancy, prices. 

Some of the varieties have dark fleshj others light flesh, still others 



Persimmons; Japanese Varieties. 1Q7 

a mixture of the two. The light and the dark flesh differ radically in 
texture, aiid consistency, as well as appearance, and, when found in, the 
same fruit, are never blended, but always distinct. The dark flesh is neyeB 
astringent; the light flesh is astringent until it softens. The dark-fleshed 








PERSIMMON 



fruit is crisp and meaty like an apple, and is edible before it matures. 
Some of the entirely dark-fleshed kinds improve as they soften^ The 
light-fleshed kinds, and those with mixed light and dark flesh, are very 
delicious when they reach the custard-like consistency of full ripeness. 
In some, the astringency disappears as the fruit begins to soften ; in others, 
it persists until the fruit is fully ripe. Seeds accompany the daik flesh. 
Light-fleshed kinds are seedless. Those with mixed flesh have seeds in 
proportion to the quantiy of dark flesh. Time of ripening, August to 
iDecember. 

The Japan persimmon tree being a dwarf, may be set quite close to- 
gether in the orchard, from ten to twelve feet apart each way. They are 
also peculiarly adapted to our Southern climate and will grow anywhere 
any other fruit prospers. A light, porous soil, moderately rich or stim- 
ulated by fertilizers, will show some astonishing results in the growth of 
the trees and abundance of fruit. It is quite usual to see small trees 
bend to the ground, loaded with large, heavy fruit. Considering the 
size of the trees and fruit, the combination appears abnormal. The wood 
is exceedingly tough and the limbs often seek rest on the ground before 
relinquishing or ripening their fruit. The trees are highly ornamental 
and. should find a place in the home orchard, as well as the commereialj 
orchards by all who admire a. beautiful tree and delicious fruit. .;.;i.i.>i 



138 



Oranges; Culture of. 



VARIETIES. 

Among the native kinds the American Honey persimmon is the stand- 
ard. This variety and all the Japanese varieties may be budded or grafted 
into the native wild stock. Any one having a natural growth of young 
persimmon trees may convert them into any of the improved kinds; in 
fact, the native roots are preferable. For this process of budding and 
grafting read Part Four of this book. 

PICKING. 

Like the hard pears, persimmons will ripen best if packed while quite 
hard and laid away in straw cellars or root houses. The persimmons will 
ripen so slowly there is amply opportunity to place them on the market 
in the right stage for consumption, and in that state they are always salable 
at remunerative prices. 



OEANGES. 
The culture of citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit and lemons, with the 




ORANGES 

exception in South Florida and California, hais been attended with such 
disastrous results in the more northern part of the South, that the new 
Southern investor, seeking remunerative ventures, is apt to look with sus- 



Oranges; Satsuma Variety, Soil, Fertilizers. 139 

picion at citrus culture, and yet man was made to overcome difficulties, 
and the horticulturists of our country have kept pace with other industries, 
and they will, no doubt, finally give us orange trees which may grow and 
prosper in a large portion of the South. In Japan, where the climate 
is similar to our Southern climate, many oranges are grown, but they 
are of a hardier stock, and these trees may form a basis from which suitable 
orange trees may be propagated for the South. In many parts of Louisi- 
ana, Texas and other coast countries, quite a number of orchards have suc- 
ceeded, planted in a Japanese variety, called the Satsuma. As our aim in 
writing this book. The Modern Guide, is to recommend or describe only 
such fruits or vegetables where success is possible and not problematical, we 
will not, in this article on orange culture, devote uay space to such tender 
varieties of oranges, lemons or grapefruits which in our latitude failures 
Would be the rule, and success the exception; even the culture of the 
Japanese varieties will always be attended with some risk, and care must 
be bestowed in the selection of protected localities, low crowned trees, and 
low budding into a hardy stock like the citnis trifoliata practised, to in- 
sure success. 

SATSUMA ORANGES. 

The Satsuma orange is the hardiest orange tree known, up to this time, 
and the only kind that can be recommended for extreme southern planting 
for commercial or ornamental purposes. The Satsuma orange is of medium 
size, flattened, loosely adhering rind and easily separated segments, like 
all 'Other varieties of the Mandarin group; the color is not red like the 
Mandarin, but of a deeper yellow than the Mandarin; flesh fine grained, 
tender, juicy, sweet and delicious, entirely seedless, ripen in September^; 
October and November; on account of its extreme earliness, good appear- 
ance and excellent quality, it brings the highest prices in the markets. The 
tree is of considerably smaller growth than other orange trees. This is 
rather an advantage than a detriment, being a protection against cold; en- 
tirely thornless, and bears very young, often on the second year's wood. 

A Satsuma orange grove should only be planted where there is some 
protection against the cold northern winds by timber, hedges, barns or 
houses; water protection near lakes or streams is also very desirable. As 
the fruit is seedless, the trees must be propagated by budding. 

SOIL AND FERTILIZERS. 

The soil should be loose and containing humus, something like a rich 
garden soil. The tree quickly responds and makes a rapid growth with fer- 



140 Fig Culture; How to Plant, Pack and Ship. 

tilizer containing a fair proportion of potash or phosphate of bone. As the 
trees are really drawfs. they may be set quite close together, about twelve 
feet apart each way. 

BirDDING. 

Citrus trifoliata, a species of the citrus family, bearing a small, non- 
eatable orange, is the hardiest stock, as far as withstanding cold is con- 
cerned, and offers an admirable stock, for the budding of the Satsuma 
orange. Most nurserymen sell Satsuma orange trees budded on the trir 
foliata stock, and when time is an object one or two-year-old budded trees 
may be bought at reasonable prices; the main point is to see that the Sat- 
suma bud is inserted low in the stock, not over twelve inches from the 
ground ; the advantage of this is, in extreme cold weather the trunk of the 
tree may be wrapped higher than the union of the woods, and even should 
the entire top part of the tree be killed, as long as some of the Satsuma 
wood is left uninjured, the trees would soon recuperate and bear fruit again 
the second year following. 

Where it is desirable to grow the trees, sow trifoliata seed in the nursery 
row, and when the trifoliata stock is two years old, bud the stock with Sat- 
suma buds about eight inches from the ground. For budding, see part 
III. of this book. 

Every lover of trees should at least plant a few of these most beautiful 
Satsuma oranges on the home farm, orchard or door yards. The sight of 
the loaded small trees, with the golden oranges, is most pleasing and en- 
chanting. 



FIG CULTTJEE. 

HOW TO PLANT, PACK AND SHIP FIGS. 

For many years the Southern farmer has cultivated figs in a limited 
way around door yards; in fact, many growers believe that figs cannot 
be successfully grown in orchards. As an old farmer remarked to us, 
"The fig tree has got to smell your breath to do well." This, however, is 
all erroneous. Figs are now successfully grown in large orchards inMis- 
■sissippi, Louisiana and Texas, with good results. The fig tree is a 
ravenous feeder, and delights more in liberal application of all kinds of 
manures than frequent cultivation; in fact, deep cultivation around the 
trees is rather more harmful than good. The demand for figs is steadily 
increasing, as the fruit is gradually introduced in Northern markets; its 
peculiar sweetness and laxative, properties make it a 'healthy, desirable 
fruit to all who once have acquired a taste for figs. , 



Fig Culture; Planting^ Varieties 



141 



Besides being a delightful fruit in its ripe stage, it is peculiarly adapted 
for preserving, and there is hardly any preserve higher in price or more 
in demand than preserved figs, when properly treated. 

PLANTING. 

Figs do best on sandy, well drained loam; the figs can be easily and 
cheaply propagated from cuttings, and it is not unusual to see cuttings 
planted in the spring mature figs in a limited way the same year. Fig 
cuttings, or trees, should be planted fifteen feet apart each way, or they 
may be planted in rows fifteen feet apart and eight feet in the row; it 
is not a bad idea to plant figs along fences, outhouses, bams and chicken 
yards. Chickens do well under fig trees, and so do the trees, in conse- 
quence. 




i'lG. 

VARIETIES. 



There are many excellent varieties, such as : 

Celeste or Sugar Fig, the best for all purposes. 

White Adriatic, very large, juicy fruit, very thin skinned, good bearer. 

Brown Turkey, medium size, color brown, very prolific. 

Large Blue Ischia, dark blue, very large and of fine taste. 

Lemon Fig, a peculiar lemon flavored fig. 



10 



142 Grapes; Culture in Different Localities. 

In the Coast Country there is a local fig called the Magnolia Fig, which 
is very desirable on account of its size, sweetness and prolific bearing qual- 
ities. It can be procured from any Coast Country nursery or grower. 
Fig trees have been known to yield 1000 pounds of fruit to the tree in one 
season. 

FERTILIZERS. 

' A heavy application of good, strong barnyard manure each year is 
desirable; even liquid manures are keenly appreciated by fig trees. Where 
barnyard manure is not available in sufficient quantities, we would ad- 
vise to use monthly on small trees three pounds of fertilizer containing: 
nitrogen, 6 per cent; actual potash, 9 per cent; available phosphoric acid, 
9 per cent for each tree. 

CULTIVATION. 

In a young orchard the cultivation should be frequent and very shallow, 
especially close to the tree. Other light crops may be grown between the 
TOWS. As the orchard grows larger very little, if any, cultivation is re- 
quired, or juist sufficient to keep down excessive weeds and grass and as- 
sist in applying fertilizers. 

It is quite frequent that fig trees, during January, put on an early 
fgrowth and a late freeze in February or March kills all of the tops. This 
is, however, not very serious, as the roots are seldom killed, and the figs, 
'being such spontaneous growers, will re-establish themselves in short 
order, even bearing a good crop during the following summer. 

PACKING AND SHIPPING. 

During the ripening season, figs must be picked every day; as soon as 
one shows a large increased size and color, it must be picked and packed 
for the market. Figs should be carefully and nicely packed in straw- 
berry boxes and in crates holding twenty-four of the quart boxes. 

GEAPES. 

The decade closing the first half of the last century witnessed the birth 
of commercial grape culture in the United States, leading up to the 
making of choice wines from American grapes. 

In the United States there are two distinct grape producing sections, 
one east of the Eocky Mountains, where the American varieties are largely 
and pofitably grown; the other in California, where the Vinifera varieties 
have found a congenial home. These sections differ not only in their 
products, soils and climate, but also in their methods of pruning, culture, 
gathering, working and marketing of crops, so that only those familiar 
with both sections are able to make a just comparison. 



Grapes; Varieties to Grow. 



143 



^•Nearly all the varieties grown in California do not do well in our 
South. As to varieties of grapes to plant, each locality must in a measure 
determine this for itself, grape growing being perhaps more dependent on 
selection of varieties with reference to soil, climate, location and other 
conditions than any other fruit industry. 

The writer has seen such radically different results with the same 
varieties planted in vineyards only a short distance apart, that it would 




GRAPKS 

hardly seem possible they were the fruit from the same variety. 

It must first be decided whether to grow raisin, table or wine grapes. 
Usually it will be well to select such varieties as have proven valuable 
for such purposes in your immediate vicinity. It is seldom that you 
will find more than ten or a dozen varieties that do well in any one 
locality. Now those that do best for us here in the Southwest are Lenoir 
(Black Spanish). Herlicmont. Black July, Catawba, Brighton, Delaware. 



144 Grapcx: Soil, Cutting, Pruning, Etc. 

^Niagara, Triumph and Concord. The first four named are the best for 
wine. The Lenoir (Black Spanish) have blighted so bad for the past few 
years that we have about abandoned it. Nearly all of the grapes that 
are subject to blight here commence to show brown specks on them about 
the time the seeds are forming in the berry, and the best remedy that 
I have found is not to cultivate, stir or plow the ground for several weeks 
while the seed are forming and hardening. 

Spraying the grapes with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the brown 
specks appear is a preventive, if applied beforehand, and a remedy later. 
For the formula of the Bordeaux mixture and application, read Part IV. 
of this book. 

SOIL. 

The soil best adapted to grapes in any locality is a gently sloping, well 
drained sandy soil : even hillsides are good. Should there be gravel or 
small stones it is no detriment if the land is fertile; if it be poor, use such 
fertilizers as will supply those substances in which they are deficient. 
If the soil lacks in fruit producing qualities, potash is needed; if more wood 
growth is desired, nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied. 

It may be of interest to some to know how we make cuttings and 
propagate vines. In the first place, we select the variety that we wish to 
propagate; cut or prune the old vines, leaving a spur with two or three 
buds on each spur, then take two vines, cut off and make our cuttings. 
Cuttings should be al)out eight inches long and about the size of a 
lead pencil, with not less than three buds; cut the lower end close to and 
just below the joint; cut to tbe top end one inch above the j'oint. The proper 
time for pruning and making cuttings is December and January. Cut- 
tings can be buried in the ground — say a foot deep, and kept until all 
^danger of frost is past; then put them in the nursery four feet apart 
and six inches in drill, pressing the dirt to them well, only one bud 
being left above the top of the ground. In hoeing, care should be taken 
not to move the cutting, as it lessens the chance to take root. Generally 
about 80 per cent of our cuttings grow. In November they are ready to 
be put in the vineyard or for sale, as the case may be, or heal them in 
and set them out in vineyard in January or February, cutting off all the 
vine except the main stem, leaving it about two inches long. The first 
year we let them grow at will without pruning. That fall or winter we 
cut them off again, except the main stem, leaving it four inches. 

Now the vineyard should be posted, and one wire stapled on 2 1-3 feet 
from the ground. In the spring all the shoots, which will be many, 
should be pulled or rubbed off except two of the strongest, and when they 
get eight or ten inches long the weaker one should be cut off and the 



1 



Strairherries ; J'rofits. Cultivaiion, 14o 

other one tied loosely to a small stake and trained up to the wire. When 
it reaches the wire pinch the bud out, then train the top laterals or 
suckers, one to the right and the other to the left, tying it to the wire, 
keeping all the suckers rubbed off from the wires to the ground. This 
forms what we call the arms. At pruning time those arms should be 
shortened or cut back, so that each arm will be about four feet long and 
tied securely to the ware. The next spring two wires should be put on 
the posts, the first or second one ten inches above the first and third 
fifteen inches above the second, the second wire being only ten inches 
from the first, which gives the young canes a chance to fasten their 
tendrils before they get so long and heavy that the wind will whip and 
break them, and save so much tying up. The top trellis holds up the long 
vines so that the grapes get plenty of air, and also acts as a shade from 
the hot rays of the noonday sun. Now in the spring, when these arms be- 
gin ix) put forth their upright canes that bear the fruit and cover the 
trellis, care should be taken to thin them to one cane to every six inches. 
never letting anything grow below the bottom trellis except the main 
vine. In pruning we always cut oft' all new wood except two or three 
inches next the old vine, which is called spur pruning. We have only 
touched on some points tliat we thought might be of interest to someone. 
There are so many different methods of pruning and training that the 
details of them cannot be discussed in this book. 

In California two principal methods are practised, commonly called 
cane and spur pruning. All of the systems have one underlying principle. 
As the grape bears fruit mainly on the shoots on the wood of the 
previous year's growth, the pruning should be so as to renew the wood at 
a given point from year to year, thereby regulating its production and keep- 
the plant thoroughly shaped and under constant control. 

With a thorough knowledge of the nature of the vine nothing is easier 
than to prune it correctly. There are many who easily learn to prune 
fruit trees who fail to master the vine. 



STKAWBEEEIES. 

Strawberries may justly be termed the queen of all small fruits, and 
in point of profits from the culture, strawberries are incomparable to all 
other fruits. Seldom an overstocked market on strawberries is found. The 
berry is so early and appreciated by all classes, that hundreds, even thou- 
sands of cars are annually shipped from the Southern States to Northern 
markets. The earliest berries arrive in the North in January and F.eb;ru,r 
arv from Florida, followed by Louisiana, Texas, South Carolina, Missi^ 



14G 



Strau-berries; Yarieties. 



sippi, Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Missouri, and the profits per acre 
are nearly the same. The proceeds at Alvin, Texas, last season, were 
over $400.00 per acre, and a thousand miles further north, in Van Buren, 
Arkansas, about the same. It will be seen by this that each Locality has 
its season for marketing berries. Early or late the demand in the North 
is about the same. It follows that strawberries may be grown profitably 
in any latitude of the South. After once the ground is well prepared 
and the plants set, the cultivation, picking and packing are light, pleas- 
ant employments. Persons of delicate constitution seeking health by out- 
door employment, could find no pleasanter and more profitable task than 
to grow strawberries for the market. 



VARIETIES. 



While most experienced strawberry growers in the South have favorite 
varieties, the best yet cultivated, and which have become standard, are, in 
the order named: Klon^iike, Newman, Excelsior, Mitchell and Lady 



A'^>^^u 




STRAWBERRIES 

Thompson. The last named is rather pale of color, and not so desirable 
as the others, although it is a well shaped, hardy and prolific berry. There 
are many other excellent kinds, yet the above list is sufficient for the new 
beginner to pick a choice berry from. 



strawberries J Planting. 147 

PLANTING. 

strawberry plants may be set out in the South in any month of the 
year when the ground is sufficiently moist and warm enough. If the 
plants are set out in August or September, a light crop may be harvested 
from the plants the next spring, much depending on the thorough cultiva- 
tion, and to have the plant vigorously established. The largest crops may 
be expected the second, third and fourth years. After the fourth year a 
decline will then follow, until the plants may become almost worthless. 
It is well then to plow up the strawberry patch and plant other crops on 
the land, planting the new patch on other land, where no berries have been 
recently grown. 

In old strawberry fields root maggots and crown borers may appear, and 
rotation of all crops is always advisable as the only timely remedy for these 
pests. 

Thorough preparation of the soil is a prime necessity. We lay off land 
thirty-two feet wide, plow three times, and thoroughly harrow same, 
turning soil to the center twice, the third time to the dead furrow, careful 
not to throw soil into the furrow, which is left for drainage. This will 
make a bed for ten rows of strawberry plants three feet apart. Now take a 
small plow, make a shallow furrow where the plants are to set. In 
this furrow distribute a fertilizer of about 6 per cent phosphate acid and 
4 per cent nitrogen, at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. Then turning 
the plowing back on the fertilizer, making a slight ridge which is leveled 
somewhat by a plank, not too heavy, but that you can still see a slight 
ridge to plant on — if s always best to plant on a slight elevation — then 
you can cultivate closer to the young plant without covering same. When 
planting, which is done in the South from July to April, but for a crop 
of berries for next spring, probably September planting gives the best 
results, while plantings until latter part of November may make a half 
crop. Planting thereon into April from which no crop is 'jxpected, we 
set the plants three feet apart in the rows, letting the runners from these 
fill up the intermediate space to make single rows for next year's fruiting. 
Summer and fall planting we set the plants about ten inches apart in the 
row. Plants must be planted so as not to cover the crown of the plant — 
thoroughly wetting the roots when planting. If the roots by some cause 
become dry, better have them in water for twenty-four hours before plant- 
ing, otherwise they will either die or make roots from the crown, to the 
serious injury of the plant. All plants ought to be firmly set, ground 
firmed with the foot, immediately after planting. Hoe and cultivate, keep- 
ing the ground well stirred and the runners removed. About the 25th of 
October another 500 pounds of the same formula of fertilizer per acre is 



148 Dewberries. 

strewn along the plants and cultivated in, and some time next month 
running a sweep in center. This will in a measure bed the plants and 
leave middle lower for accumulation of excessive rain, keeping water from 
berries to some extent. In this way the plantation is left for winter mulch- 
ing. 

PICKING AND PACKING. 

To make strawberry culture a profitable venture, the proper picking and 
packing are the most important items. The beds must be gone over every 
day and every berry picked that shows the slightest color. A small part of 
the stem should be left on each berry and the berry picked from the 
(vine and not pulled off, as this injures both the berry and the vines. 
^Usually the berries are picked in the field in the quarts and pints in 
which they are transported to market. This saves handling over, which 
is always more or less injurious to fruits of all kinds. The standard crates 
are the 24-quart or 24-pint crates. 

Strawberries may be shipped by express without ice. When shipped in 
carlots, they must be shipped in refrigerator cars, well iced and re-iced in 
transit. 



DEWBERRIES. 

Dewberries are natives of the South, and will establish themselves 
pi-omiscuously wherever land is broken, on right-rf-ways of railways or 
country roads. Fire appears to be the only enemy of the dewberry in its 
native state. 

Wherever dewberries are plentiful in the wild state, they may be 
picked and shipped in 24-quart crates the same as strawberries, and there 
would really be no need of planting dewberries, or bestowing any atten- 
tion to cultivation, but dewberries, like all other berries, improve in size, 
flavor and sweetness, when transplanting in the orchard, and the culture 
of dewberries may be made a very profitable industry, when planted in 
rows, as they sell equally as well and at about the same price as straw- 
berries, and a patch of dewberries once planted would last for years, with- 
out much further labor, and can be made a constant source of profit. 

As dewberries will grow on most any kind of soil, they may be planted 
anywhere, where isufiicient soil may be found to cover the roots. Sandy 
cla)'^, stony or rocky land are all good for dewberries, and no fertilizers 
would be required, unless the crop is to be pushed, or of superior quality, 
which fertilizers always accomplish with any product. 



Blackberries. 



149 



PLANTING. 

Plant the roots two feet apart in the rows, and the rows three feet 
apart, to' admit of horse cultivation, which dewberries appreciate like other 

crops. 

For picking and packing dewberries, see strawberries. There is an 
improved kind of dewberry called the Austin, which is considerably planted 
in the South, but we consider the native, when selected, as good as any 
dewberry. 



BLACKBEERIES. 

Blackberries, on account of their healthy and curative qualities, are a 
very favorite berry with many, and blackberry culture can be made profit- 
able anywhere in the South. 

Blackberries thrive on almost any soil, but the most desirable is a strong 
loam, retentive of moisture, tending toward clay rather than sand, but 
soil must be well drained at all times. Fertilizers containing a good pro- 




B1.ACKBERRIES 



portion of potash are the most desirable ; too much humus or nitrogen will 
induce a rank growth of wood at the expense of the fruit. 

The rows should be four to six feet apart and the plants from three 



150 



Pecans; Planting for Profit. 



to four feet in the row, according to the character of the soil. If desired 
to cultivate both ways, set the plants in checks six to seven feet each way. 
As soon as the fruiting season is past remove the old canes; these should 
be burned at once. The young canes should be clipped off when they reach 
the height of about two feet; this will cause them to branch and they will 
become self-supporting. Apply fertilizer during the late winter and give 
shallow and constant cultivation. 

The most favorite cultivated varieties are the Wilson's Early, Agawam, 
Mersereau and Erie. 

Blackberries when ripe are exceedingly soft and tender, and can only 
be shipped with the greatest care to close by markets. Pack and ship in 
24-quarc strawberry crates, like the strawberry and dewberry. 



PECANS. 



PECANS FOR PROFIT. 

The planting of pecan groves is not receiving the attention of fruit and 
truck growers in the South as it should. Every Southern fruit and truck 




PECAN8 



grower, by planting ten acres of pecans, growing small fruit and truck 
between the rows of trees, can make a good living, provide for his family 
and old age. 



Pecans; Planting for Profit. 151 

Plant pecan trees on your truck land, 40 by 40 feet apart. This will 
give you 27 trees to the acre. On an average each tree at the end of ten 
years, will give you 75 pounds of nuts or 2,035 pounds total per acre. 
'These nuts will sell at the lowest wholesale market price for soft shell 
pecans for 8 cents per pound. This gives you an income of $162.00 per 
acre, or a total of $1,620.00 for ten acres. As the trees begin to bear 
at 6 years of age, you will have already received full pay for the cost of 
trees and cultivation up to the ten years; this leaves you in possession of 
a pecan grove worth $10,000, as no sane man would sell an acre of ground 
for less than $1,000 per acre that yields an income of $162.00 each year. 
As the pecan trees will long outlive you, you are independent for life, and 
have a handsome property for your posterity. 

The pecan is a hickory with thin shell and of finer quality than the 
'hickory. It naturally belongs to the Southern States, and is better 
adapted to the lower Southern States. For the last few years it is com- 
manding attention from planters of profitable fruit, and no fruit is growing 
in interest faster than the pecan. The pecan is the only fruit planted 
that will last a century. It is not a perishable fruit, and does not have 
to be gathered in a rush and shipped, or kept in expensive cold storage, 
like other fruit. Not restricted in its sale, it takes the world for its mar- 
kets. It is the best eating of all nuts; most used of all nuts; most profitable 
of all nuts. 

The whole tree is profitable. The wood is in demand at any age. The 
nuts are used for desert, for oil, for confectioneries, and is lately being 
used extensively for nut foods, which will furnish an unlimited demand for 
the nuts. 

The pecan business is no new business. Texas alone furnishes one-half 
of all the pecans sold in the United States. Her annual crop is from 200 
to 500 cars, at from $1,000.00 to $2,000.00 per car. 

If you are the owner of good land, seize the opportunity and plant 
pecans. Talk pecans and let the Southern people raise them. The United 
States imports a greater and greater per cent of nuts annually. The im- 
portation for nuts in 1902 was $21,480,000.00, which was 10 per cent 
greater than in 1901. 

People who never travel beyond the bounds of their own county will 
hold that "the business will soon be overdone." It is a very small per cent 
of the many million inhabitants of the United States who ever saw a pecan. 
Besides, the population of the United States will grow faster than the 
Southern States will grow the nuts. 

What is universally supposed to be the greatest drawback to the busi- 
ness will keep it forever a safe investment, and that is, ''they take so long 



152 Pecans; Location and Soil, Preparation. 

to bear." While in reality their time of bearing does not vary materially 
from that of apples and pears, this supposed (?) drawback keeps the pe- 
can the most profitable of all fruits. 

Let us divide prospective planters into three classes — young, middle- 
aged and old men. 

Young men of means, the ones who could plant pecans at the greatest 
profit, will not generally plant, Jiecause returns appear too distant. 

The middle-aged man will not plant because his means are used in rais- 
ing and educating a family, or pushing all the capital he can command 
into his business. 

The facts in the case are: A pecan grove begins to bear the day after 
planting, and bears an increasing amount each day. To explain: Any 
one spending $1,000.00 in planting a budded or grafted paper shell pecan 
grove will not take $1,100.00 for it the day after planting. When two years 
old an acre of well kept budded or grafted pecans is worth $100.00 ; when 
ten years old is worth $1,100.00 per acre. 

A budded or grafted pecan grove is better than a life insurance policy, 
government bonds, or bank account. If a man leaves life -insurance it is 
too often loaned out and lost. It is better than bonds, because it yields 
more annually from the trees that will live a century. It is better than 
a bank account, because the principal (the grove) will not be spent or 
mortgaged. 

LOCATION AND SOIL. 

Below the Ohio river, where plenty of oak and hickory grow, plant pe- 
'•cans. In the absence of hickor}^, plant after large trees of any kind, if 
not too flat and too poorly drained. The Mississippi delta is without 
jdoubt the finest section in the United States. But all of us do not live 
in the delta, neither do we want to. Plant pecans on the richest well 
drained soil obtainable. Fertile soil with good, red clay cub-,soil is fine 
for pecans. If your soil is not rich, do your best on improving it, if you 
desire best results. Pecan trees are not damaged by overflows after they 
are two years old, but are generally benefited. 

PREPARATION. 

A thoroughly prepared cotton or corn field is good preparation. Sub- 
soiling the land for a few years is quite beneficial — helps the supply 
of moisture and deepens the soil. Dig holes three feet wide and three feet 
deep. Fill up the hole with good, top soil and well rotted manure (two 
bushels). In the absence of well rotted manure, use two or three pounds 
of standard guano. Be sure that it is thoroughly mixed with good top 



Pecans; Planting, Cultivation, Etc. 153 

soil. If not well mixed, use less quantity, or leave it out. The prepara- 
tion is best done one month before planting, to allow fertilizers to get 
diffused in the soil, and to allow for settling. 

DISTANCE TO PLANT. 

Plant trees 60 by 60 feet in delta and similar soil. Poorer land 50 by 50. 

NUMBER OF TREES. 

Planting 60 by 60 feet gives 13 trees per acre; planting 40 by 40 feet 
gives 37 trees to the acre; planting 45 by 45 gives 31 trees per acre; plant- 
ing 50 by 50 feet gives 17 trees per acre. 

PLANTING THE PECAN. 

In the well prepared hole, dig a hole to easily take the root of the tree. 
Trim off all bruised and broken roots. Cut off tap root about 10 inches 
from collar of tree. Plant tree straight and firmly in the hole as deep as it 
grew in the nursery. Hill up close around the tree to allow for settling. 

CUTTING THE TAP ROOT. 

It is no drawback to cut the tap root, but a great convenience, and 
often a benefit. Large bearing pecan trees in flat woods (wet soil) have 
been blown over by storms and had no tap root at all. 

FERTILIZERS. 

About three pounds of good fertilizer worked in the soil around each 
tree the second year after planting, and adding one pound extra each year 
is a moderate and safe application. Fertilizing and thoroughly cultivating 
proper crops is the b-est way to stimulate the trees. 

CULTIVATION. 

Thoroughly cultivate through growing season till branches meet. Then 
isod to Bermuda grass for cattle is a most excellent plan. 

WHAT CROPS TO GROW. 

Pinders, sweet and Irish potatoes, well fertilized, are the best crops, be- 
cause they allow all sunshine and air. Next comes cotton. Velvet beans 
planted in rows and fertilized with potash and acid is excellent for build- 
ing up the land. It will be necessary to cut the vines off of the trees only 
about three times during a season. If yon plant corn in the grove, plow 
the land three times and plant the corn late — say in May. This will give 
the trees a strong start. Give distance around the trees with all crops. 
Run corn rows east and west. 



154 Pecans; Cost, Budding. 

AGE OF BEARING AND YIELD. 

Budded and grafted paper shell pecan trees will commence bearing from 
5 to 6 years after planting in orchard. At 9 to 10 years will yield 50 to 
100 pounds to the tree. The best yields from large trees has been over ten 
barrels. Georgia soil produces early peaches, early melons and early veg- 
etables, and also yields pecans earlier than other sections. 

COST PFE ACRE. 

Owing to the great distance between pecan trees, an acre does not cost 
much more than peaches, apples and pears, and not as much as an acre 
of oranges. 

PLANT WITH PEACHES. 

Plant peaches between the pecan trees; an acre does not cost much more 
than when first set out and peaches will yield their fruit and be out 
of the way of the pecans. 

PECAN BUDDING. 

It is not so hard to learn how to convert your old worthless pecan, 
hickory and pignut treas into annual bearers of fine paper shell pecans, 
as many think. If the proprietor of a native grove thinks he is too old to 
learn such tricks, no doubt he has a son from 15 to 20 years old who would 
be glad to undertake the task. It would relieve the monotony of farm 
•work, interest the lad, make him feel a deeper interest in the farm and 
be a great inducement for him to remain on it. The trees should be 
prepared from now on before March 1, so now is the time to go out and 
get you some fine wood from the top of some trees of the above variety, 
say about six to ten trees. The work will pay you, and perhaps the biggest 
pay you ever did get from the trees, and leave them in shape to bring 
you in good revenue every year, by a little care, attention and nominal ex- 
pense. 

To secure large healthy sprouts to bud on, the top should be cut off 
ten to twelve feet above the ground, unless overflow land, then above 
high water mark. A few small limbs can be left below the cutoff, pro- 
vided none stick straight up, even at an angle of 45 degrees. If such 
limbs are left, the sap will go straight up these limbs, which will soon 
make the top and the sprouts will be starved. The object is to make a new 
top out of a new sprout, and grow a bud of a fine variety on it for the 
entire new top. Thus, in from three to eight years, owing to how long the 
tree has budded, you will have an entirely new tree of a different nature 
bearing your family pecans yearly instead of the Northern nuts you now 
occasionally get. Perhaps you may have a tree in your grove that bears 



Peanuts; Varieties, Soil, Planting, Cultivation. 155 

a, fine nut that is good enough for you. Ir so, why not make them all 
hear this variety? It can be done, and make the work profitable in fire- 
wood while doing it. But too many put it off too late, until the season 
is over. 



PEANUTS. 



Peanuts as a forage crop for dairy purposes, hog or stock food, has no 
equal in the Southern States, when we consider the inexpensive cultiva- 
tion and nutritious qualities of the nuts and foliage. Of late years peanuts 
Jhave been converted into oil, breakfast foods, peanut candy, and many 
other commodities until the price of the nut lias experienced a constant 
increase. With the increase of the demand, it is safe to assert that every 
farmer, fruit, truck and poultry raiser in the South, who has ever grown 
peanuts, will testify that peanuts are a most valuable crop. 

VARIETIES. 

In all probability the White Virginia and the Eed Tennessee, so much 
used for roasting for human food, are the best known to the general pub- 
lic. The White Virginia nuts are grown almost exclusively in the light sandy 
soils of Virginia and North Carolina, and appear to reach perfection only in 
those States, the same as the Eed Tennessee is almost confined to Tennessee 
and a limited area of country. Neither of these kinds can be recom- 
mended for general cultivation in other parts of the South. 

Under these circumstances, it is quite fortunate that we have the Span- 
ish peanut, which adapts itself to any part of the South, and is a most pro- 
lific, rich and succulent nut; and this kind we recommend to all grow- 
ers as the most profitable. 

SOIL. 

The Spanish peanut will grow in most any soil. On account of planting, 
cultivation and harvesting, light soils are preferable. Land that would 
hardly make a half crop of corn will make a full crop of peanuts, and no 
fertilizer is required. 

PLANTING AND CULTIVATION. 

The Spanish peanut may be planted in the South from March to 
August ; even after other crops, such as potatoes, cabbage, beans, cucumbers 
and other truck crops have been harvested, peanuts may be planted with 
entire success. 

Plant and bed the land in rows 3 feet apart; open with a bull tongue 
plow, and drop the kernels to average a kernel about every ten inches in 



156 Walnuts; Varieties. 

the row. Cover with a light harrow or board. The nuts should be shelled 
when planting. The cultivation of peanuts after the plants are up con- 
sists mainly in horse cultivation between the rows, very little hoe culti- 
vation being required. As soon as the tops attain any size, they will soon 
shade the ground and conquer any grass or weeds that may appear and 
interfere with the growth of the nuts. 

HARVESTING. 

Under ordinary conditions, fifty bushels of clean, hand-picked peanutfr 
may be expected from one acre, selling at $1.00 per bushel, and also 3 
tons of vines, equal as forage to the best hay crop known. When we con- 
sider that this crop may be grown as a side line, at a time in the heat of 
the summer when other crops are liable to burn out, it will be readily seen 
that peanuts are an inviting crop. The demand for the nuts is practically 
unlimited, and it is even better to grow the nuts in large quantities, so as 
to be able to ship and dispose of the crop in carloads. There are now spe- 
cial machines on the market for both harvesting and threshing Spanish 
peanuts which we advise to procure, when the crop is large enough to 
justify the cost. Where the crop is small and for home use, they may be 
plowed out and gathered by hand to cure. Hogs may also be turned in the 
field after the crop is gathered, with profitable results. 



WALNUTS. 

With the exception of California, the cultivation of walnuts as a source 
of profit is very limited in the United States; the slow growth 
of the trees and long waits for returns deters many from engaging in 
walnut culture. The cultivation of the walnut, both for nuts and tim- 
ber, can be made a source of profit. Walnut timber and cedar are prob- 
ably the most valuable of all timbers, and are fast disappearing from the 
American forests, and the planting of walnut and cedar should be en- 
couraged. 

The soil for walnuts should be well drained ; any stiff or rocky soil is ac- 
ceptable, therefore walnuts may be grown on the poorest stony hill- 
sides, where other trees or crops may fail, and the trees in time would con- 
vert this useless land into the most valuable part of the farm. 



VARIETIES. 



Several Japanese varieties have been imported into this country with 
more or less success: the trees bear much earlier than the native kind; 



Valuahle Hints for the Orchard. 157 

are more dwarfed and highly ornamental, and should find a place on the 
farm and in the orchard. 

The thin shelled English varieties are also favorites in California, and 




WALNUTS 



a few other parts of the country, and may be planted with success where 
immediate results are not the prime object. 



VALUABLE HINTS FOR THE ORCHARD. 



HOW TO SET FRUIT TREES. 

First buy of a reliable nursery. 
Get trees as soon as they are delivered. 

Never let the roots be exposed to the sun or air for any length of time. 
Prepare the land as well as you would for any other crop. 
Dig holes 2 feet across and 18 inches deep, and then dig bottom deep 
as you can, using a pick, Clet dirt where logs and brush have been burned. 
Fill holes so the trees will be deep as they grow in the nursery. 
Put earth from top of ground on first and the clay on top. 
If the ground is in any way dry, water the trees. 
Always press ground firmly around the roots. 

Cut out all damaged roots caused in removing trees from the nursery. 
11 



158 Valuable Hints for the Orchard. 

Cut all roots off that have been broken, until the wood gets white. 

The top of a two-year-old tree should be cut off about 12 or 15 inches 
- above the fork. 

One-year-old trees are to be cut according to height to be headed. 

Trees should be cultivated as any •other crop that needs thorough culti- 
vation. 

Never sow wheat or oats in the orchard, or any other crops of the same 
nature. 



GEOW FEOM CUTTINGS. 

The grape, quince, currant, gooseberry, rose, and a number of other trees 
and plants grow readily from cuttings, if properly managed. They often 
do as well if made in the spring, but the best time is fall ; and the sooner 
they are taken off after the leaves drop the better. Cuttings are made of 
yearling wood — the growth of previous season. 

They should be from 8 to 12 inches long, and should contain at least 
two buds, better if three or four. The upper cut is made two or three 
inches above the upper bud, and the lower cut close below the lower bud. 



SUMMER PRUNING. 

Summer pruning is very important, especially to old trees that are in a 
vigorous condition. ^ Uusually the old tree does not have an oversupply of 
vitality, and while it may present a vigorous appearance it will not have 
enough vitality to mature a growth of leaves, new shoots, and develop the 
fruit. Since the new shoots will receive attention before the fruit, the 
fruit will suffer if a systematic pruning is not practised. Summer pruning 
should be begun the first week in June south of St. Louis. Then the 
presence of the young fruit can be told and every water shoot that does not 
possess fruit should be cut off. All weak shoots that are filling up the 
center of the tree should be removed, as should all those which are making 
a rapid and watery growth. 



RENEW THE ORCHARD. 

The best kind of renewal for the old orchard is not the so-called "prun- 
ing up method." In short, the tops of the trees should not be cut back, so 
they will branch out heavily near the ground. Cut out the topmost 
branches the first season of renewal, leaving only the healthy side limbs. 



Valuahle Hints for the Orchard, 159 

The next year these horizontal branches may have their extremities lopped 
back with the pruners in such a way as to promote a uniform, well-round- 
ed, symmetrical head or top. 

All wounds should be dressed a few weeks after cutting, with a thick 
paint made of pure white lead and a little boiled linseed oil. 

The renewal of orchards may be profitably accompanied by the addition 
of stable manure, either worked into the soil beneath the extremities of the 
branches or allowed to remain on top of the ground as a cover for a few 
months. The manure should be well rotted, and should not be applied too 
near the trunk of the tree. If the soil is very rich, the application will be 
attended with more harm than good. 



MAKING TKEES BEAR. 

To make trees bear when tardy coming into fruiting, in June, when 
sap is in the highest flow, take out strips of ^ bark one to two inches wide, 
pointed at the ends, extending from near the ground to almost the branches. 
Always leave intact around entire trunk of tree, alternating strips of bark 
about the width of the strips taken off. New bark will form astonish- 
ingly quick without injury to the trees, yet a check gvill be given that will 
cause the formation of fruit buds. This plan is better than root pruning 
or girdling, the latter being dangerous. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that if the fruit buds have been 
killed by frost or cold weather, no method of ^treatment will induce the 
formation of fruit. 



GIRDLED TREES. 

The reason trees die when girdled is because the hot, dry air comes in 
contact with the tender fiber under the bark. If this layer is kept moist 
and eool until it can heal lOver, no injury will result. Tf the girdling is 
near the ground, I hill the tree up with moist earth, entirely covering the 
wound. This I leave till the cut is entirely healed, when /I remove it. If 
the snow was around the tree so that the pest made the girdle high up, I 
take mud and plaster jthe cut an inch thick, and then wrap this with 
a heavy cloth. During the spring and summer I dampen this bandage 
to keep the earth moist. As soon as the under tissues become hardened 
the bandage can be removed. I have followed this plan for several years, 
and have not lost a tree in that time. 

The writer has found that simply spreading a tliick layer of wet bran on 
the wound and then -wrapping a heavy piece of cloth around this and keep- 



160 Valmihle Hints for the Orchard. 

ing the cloth wet by applying a little water once each day will prevent the 
tree's death. The layer of bran should be an inch or more thick, and 
should bo replaced as rapidly as the water applied to the sack removes it. 



MICE IN THE OECHAED. 



HOW THEY MAY BE KEPT FROM GIRDLING THE TREES. 

Make a thick whitewash, about the consistency of cream, to which add 
enough blue vitriol to give a 'robin's egg blue' color. Pass between two 
rows, and apply with brush, coating that side of each row which is next 
to the operator. 

Another remedy recommended is to make a poisonous solution, using 
one part of sulphate of strychnine, one-third of one; part of borax, one 
part of white syrup, ten pnrts of water. This mixture is put into a large, 
wide-mouthed bottle and well shaken. Now cut iresh twigs from the kind 
of trees that are being attacked and with a small brush paint them lightly 
with the poison, especially the terminal buds. These are said to kill mice 
and rabbits without endanoering birds and other animals. Scatter in run- 
ways frequented by the rodents. j 

Mice may also be killed with strychnine, powdered on com meal mush. 
Wheat or com may be sonked for 24 hours in a strychnine solution, made 
by boiling a teaspoonful of the crystals in two quarts of water, the grain, 
when dried, to be scattered at the bases of the trees. 



FEUIT IN NOOKS AND COENEES. 

Of course, there is land enough on most farms \Vithout taking into ac- 
count the nooks and corners, but to the thrifty farmer there is special 
satisfaction of raising crops where nothing grew before. Frequently by 
taking thought on the subject a farmer can manage to grow a large amount 
of fruit upon the unused spaces close by the farm buildings. 

Two or three large cherry trees in the front yard will answer for shade, 
and will supply bushels of fruit. Pears, cherries and quinces can be 
grown without cultivation in the hen yard. Porches and piazzas upon 
the house can be utilized for grape vines, likewise the sunny side of the 
barn. Pear or cherry trees will flourish near a barnyard, and when plant- 
ed there will gain strength from the use of neighboring fertility. Division 
fences and sunny back walls will do for grape vines. Large apple trees 



Valuable Hinls for the Ovcahid. 161 

planted close to the farm buildings will extend; roots beneath them, .and 
thus utilize the ground, and if the branches are not allowed to lie close to 
the roofs they will do no harm. 

Pears seem to be one of the best fruits for the ht:u yard. They flourish 
in the rich soil without cultivation, and bear heavily. Apple trees also 
flourish, but much of the fruit falls upon the hard ground and is injured 
or left to be pecked by the fowls. Plums and peaches are nearly always 
short-lived in the highly nitrogenous soil of the hen yard. Cherries do 
pretty M^ell, although the soil becomes a little too strong, for them also, 
and cracked bark and tender, easily broken limbs are the result. 

If cherries are grown in the poultry yard, the yard should be a large 
one, so that the ground will not become too rich for such fruit. Over-rich 
ground causes over-growth of tree and fruit, and decays very easily in 
damp weather. The yard should be large enough so that the grass is 
kept down, but not entirely killed out. Such conditions are better for 
trees and better for poultry. The same may be said of almost any other 
fruit in a poultry yard. No fruit tree can be very healthy, hardy and 
long-lived in a crowded poultry yard, but where a common sized flock has 
the run of an orchard, say one hundred hens to the acre or less, the re- 
sult will be a benefit both to the trees and fowls. — American Cultivator. 



HOW TO PACK APPLES. 

Two layers of fruit should be placed in the bottom of the barrel, with stems 
down, and as close together as possible. These will form the facing, for this 
end will be the top when opened. Fill in with the same grade, shake 
often, and when near the top put in two more layers with stems up, letting 
the last layer stand a full inch above the chime of the barrell. Now put 
on lid, and slowly press into place, shaking the barrel meanwhile. 



SPLENDID FRUIT RULES. 

Do the picking on cool, clear days, and not on hot, murky ,, days; don't 
pick when wet; never pick when wet; never pick while warm; try to do 
most of the picking in the morning, before the warm hours; ripen in a 
cool, dark place; keep the sun away from picked fruit; aim to keep it cool 
and keep it so; sort into grades and label each grade; don't try to market 
the "culls"; pick from the outside trees in an orchard first — the inside 
fruit is not so apt to be blown off by windstorms; use a spring wagon 
when hauling and drive slow ; bruised fruit will soon be spoiled fruit ; hang 



162 Valuable Hints for the Orchard. ■ 

the pail or basket so as to be able to pick with both hands; lay the fruit in,- 
do not drop or throw them; when emptying picking basket pour the fruit 
gently; always pick fniit with stems on. 



Do not destroy the ants you see ruunning up and down the trees ; they do 
no harm and live off the lice. 



On very rich soil peach trees often become top heavy. The only way to 
prevent this is to cut them back vigorously. 



If you neglected to prune your grape vines in the fall, let them alone, as 
bleeding would be sure to follow cutting in the spring. 



A tree that is half starved is an easy prey to insects, while a strong, 
well fed, healthy tree can resist to a large degree the effect of insect at- 
tacks. 



Many orchardists declare that they prefer a rank growth of weeds in 
their orchards than a tough s-od. Well, we don't favor either. A good 
cover crop is all right, but weeds and sod are of no value. 



Rub the water sprouts off the centers of the trees and do not allow 
them to grow; they are unsightly and cause the rest of the tree to lose 
S'ome of the nourishment that it should get, and which is only wasted 
when allowed to go iuto water sprouts. 



Remember that a tree cannot move around in search of food, but that 
the food must be brought to it. If your ground is not rich enouugh to 
make the trees grow, then bring fertilizer and put near the tree. 



Watch the young trees that you set out in the fall carefully, because they 
are tender, and perhaps the dirt is a little tight around the trunks. If it 
is, loosen it up a little, for if you don't the sap will not flow freely, and the 
tree will l)e dwarfed. 



Remember the time has arrived when all fruit trees must be sprayed to 
insure maximum crops. For insecticides and spraying read part IV of this 
book. 



PART IV. 



SEEDS AND THEIR USES. 



INSECTS, SPRAYING. 



WORK FOR THE MONTH IN THE 
SOUTHERN GARDEN. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



SE)LECTING GOOD SEEDS. 

The foundation stone of truck farming is the planting of absolutely pure 
and reliable seeds. 

To buy seeds because they are offered cheap from doubtful houses must 
lead to loss and disappointment. The very fact that they are offered cheap 
creates sufficient ground for suspicion. 

It is doubtful if there is a single product where deceptions are so much 
practiced as in seed selling, and the loss is never felt until the labor, fer- 
tilizer and season is lost forever. 

As like begets like, nothing can be expected from degenerated seeds saved 
from culls or imperfect vegetables, vt^hich is so often done by irresponsible 
dealers. Seeds also mix and produce hybrids, which are as a rule worth- 
less. Entire crops of cabbage and cauliflower are often lost on ac- 
count of inferior seeds, and seeds should be purchased only from well 
established seed houses, which have some interest in selling only pedigreed 
seeds. 



PLANTING SEEDS. 

Most beginners in the truck garden sow seeds too thin. Experienced 
truck growers have long ago recognized the importance of having a good 
stand and would rather thin out than to replant. A half pound of cab- 
bage seed may produce enough plants to plant an acre, but it can't be de- 
pended upon. It is safer to sow a pound and a half for the purpose. The 
cost of the seeds is nothing compared with the loss by the absence of plants 
when wanted. To get a good stand allow one for the blackbird, two for 
the crow, three for the insects and four to grow. 



VITALITY OF SEEDS. 

All vegetable seeds have their limit in vitality. Some retain life longer 
than others, depending upon the condition, and the climate in which the 
seeds are kept. Seeds should never be kept in air-tight receptacles, as seeds 
need air, the same as any other living matter. We give below a list, show- 
ing the life of seeds. If they are older they are worthless. Also seeds do 
not keep so well in the South as in the dryer atmosphere of the North, and 
it will not be safe to use older seeds in the South than the limits given. 

A-sparagus _ 2 years. Cantaloupes 3 years. 

Beans 1 year. Watermelons 6 years. 



1G6 Seeds; Testing, Soal^ing Before Planting. 

Beets 3 years, Okra 3 years. 

Cabbage 3 years. Onions _ 1 year. 

Carrots 1 year. Peas _ 1 year. 

Cauliflower 2 years. Parsley _2 years. 

Celery 3 years. Peppers 2 years. 

Collard 4 j^ears. Pumpkins 5 years. 

Corn (sweet) 2 years. Spinach 1 year. 

Cucumbers 4 years. Squash ~ 3 years. 

Egg plant 5 years. Turnips 2 years. 

Lettuce 1 year. Tobacco -4 years. 



TESTING SEEDS. 

Every truck grower should test his seeds before planting, because it will 
show what percentage are live seeds. This will enable him to plant seed, 
either thick or thin, so as to get a good stand; much loss of time and vexa- 
tion can be saved by following our advice. It is an easy matter to test 
seeds thoroughly. Get a flat cigar box, fill the box two-thirds full of earth, 
pack down level; now get a piece of flannel or old blanket, cut the piece 
the size of the box, lay this flannel or blanket snugly on the dirt, water the 
whole and smooth down. Now, take a certain number of seeds and lay 
them out thinly over the surface, each one separate; take aonther piece of 
flannel the same size and lay over the seed, put on a light layer of soil and 
water again. Set this box in a warm place in the sun or under the stove in 
the winter and keep moist. In less than twenty-four hours many seeds, 
such as onion, turnips, etc., will show sprouts; for others, such as tomatoes 
and beets, it will take two or three daj^s to show life. Wlien ready -to ex- 
amine, after twenty-four hours, roll the flannel and dirt carefully to one 
end of the box, and you will see exactly what percentage you can depend 
on, and plant your seed accordingly; from 80 to 90 per cent should be a fair 
overage; very small seeds may be placed on the flannel promiscuously, and 
on examination the looks of the young sprout will easily determine the 
vitality of the small seeds. 

Every gardener who expects to make a success should test his seeds when 
received. Forewarned is forearmed. 



SOAKING SEEDS BEFOEE PLANTING. 
While some gardeners soak the seeds before planting in order to gain 



Seeds; Germinating. IG'^ 

lime, this practice cannot be recommended for general use, as often the 
seeds die after being placed in the ground. A much better way is to plant 
the seeds in the beds or fields where they are to germinate and soak them, by 
copiously watering the ground, after planting. Many seeds must be shaded 
during July and August from the midday sun, such as celery, cabbage and 
cauliflower, until hardy and strong enough to endure the excessive heat. 
When seeds, such as beans, cucumbers, melons and squash, are planted 
before it is warm enough, they are very apt to rot if it rains. 



GERMINATING SEEDS. 

1. Never sow out of time. Many of our truck farmers are in the habit 
of sowing too soon and in consequence are often compelled to sow double the 
quantity to get a good stand. As to the proper time for sowing, read our 
directions for planting. 

2. Do not cover seeds too deep. It will be impossible for the finer 
varieties to push through, especially if the soil is heavy and claylike. The 
rule is never to cover seeds more than twice their thickness, except the finer 
ones, which require no covering at all They should be slightly pressed in 
the ground to prevent their being washed away. 

Beans, peas and corn should be covered ^4 to i^ inch, according to 
the nature of the soil. 

3. Keep your seed beds moist, but not too wet. Water in evening and 
during extremely dry weather twice a day, or oftener if required. Tender 
seeds, such as celery, onions, leek and cauliflower, may be shaded during the 
hottest part of the day. They have to be uncovered in the evening while 
the sun is still on the bed, well watered and left uncovered during the night. 
During cloudy weather no covering is needed, nor should they be covered 
when they are up, otherwise the young plants become too tender and 
damp off. 

4. Previous to planting have your seed beds well prepared ; have the soil 
well pulverized and mellow, but not too fine; otherwise a crust will form, 
owing to constant watering, on the surface, which prevents the tender germ 
from pushing through. 

5. Never use fresh manure in the seed bed; if any is needed use well 
rotted horse, or in light sandy soil cow manure and incorporate it well with 
the soil before sowing the seed. 



BEST VARIETIES OP VEGETABLE SEEDS FOR SOUTHERN 

PLANTING. 

In giving this table below of the best varieties to plant in the Southern 
garden it must be understood that there is a constant change in garden 
seeds, old varieties being discarded and new varieties added every season. 
It is for this reason our new book, The Modern Guide, is most valuable, 
because it gives the names of the latest and most useful kinds and varieties, 
which have been tested, and for which there is a demand in the markets and 
are used for shipping purposes. The very best always heads the list. 

Asparagus — Columbia White Mammoth, Conovers Colossal or Palmetto. 

Beans — (Bush), Wardwell Kidney Wax, Golden Wax, Black Wax and 
Valentines. 

Beans — (Pole), Southern Prolific, Flagelot, Lacy Wifes or Kentucky 
Wonder. 

Beets — Red Egyptian Turnip, Half Long Blood or Red Turnip Beets. 

Cabbage — (Fall planting). Late Flat Dutch, Late Drumhead, Baldhead, 
Autumn King and Succession. 

Cabbage — (Spring planting), Charleston Wakefield, Early Flat Dutch, 
Early Drumhead and Winningstadt. 

Carrots — Danvers, Intermediate, Half pl/ong Luc and St. Valeric. 

Celery — Golden Self-Bleaching, Pashal, White Plume and Large White 
Solid. 

Cucumbers — New Orleans Market, Talby's Hybrid, the Klondike or Davis. 

Corn — (Sweet), Adams Extra Early, Evergreen, Stowell's Sugar and 
Leming. 

Egg-Plants — Large Purple, the New Orleans or New York Market. 

Garlic — Italian. 

Lettuce — Big Boston Market and French Market. 

Cantaloupes — Rocky Ford, Burrell's Gem and Netted Nutmeg. 

Watermelons — Alabama Sweet, Georgia Rattlesnake, Mountain Sweet 
and Kolb Gem. 

Mustard — The Giant Southern Curled. 

Ohra — Early French Market or Lady Finger. 

Onions — Bermuda White, Red and Crystal Wax, the Creole and Prize- 
taker. 

Onion Sets — White Portugal, Yellow Dutch or Australian Brown. 

Peas — (Bush), Philadelphia Extra Early or Alaska. 

Peas — (Climbing), Marrowfat, English Champions. 

Pepper— (Salad), Ruby King, Bull Nose or Bell. 



Seeds; Protection, Quantity to Sow. 169 

Pepper — (Sauce or Drying), Tabasco, Chili Eed or Mexican Chili. 

Potatoes — (Irish), Triumph. 

Potatoes — (Sweet), Jersey Sweet, Nansemond, Pumpkins, Yams, the 
Vineless, Sugar Yams and the Southern Eed or Queen. 

Pumpkins — Large Cheese, Field Pumpkins or Mammoth Tours. 

Radishes — The Chartier, Wliite Tipped, French Breakfast, Half Long 
Scarlet, Scarlet Globe and Chinese. 

Turnips — Purple Top Globe, Purple Top Strapleaved and White Globe. 

Rutabagas — Yellow Globe. 

Spinach — Bloomsdale Savoy Curled. 

Squash — Early White Patty Pan, Yellow Crookneck and Hubbard 
Squash. 

Tomatoes — Livingston Favorite Beauty, the Stone, Dwarf Champion, 
Paragon and Acme. 

Tobacco — Havana or Sumatra Seed. 



TO PEOTECT SEEDS AGAINST MICE AND INSECTS. 

Stir a small quantity of pine or coal tar in the seeds, then add woodashes 
until every seed is covered with the mixture ; plant immediately. Seeds will 
germinate more freely in the spring; for summer planting sow double the 
quantity. 



SEED USUALLY SOWN UPON AN ACEE. 

Barley, broadcast li/4 bu. Onions, in drills 5 to 6 lbs. 

Beans, pole, in hills 10 to 12 qts. Onions, for sets, in drills 30 lbs. 

Beets, in drills 5 to 6 lbs. Parsnips, in drills 4 to 6 lbs. 

Broom corn, in hills 8 to 10 qts. Peas, in drills _ I14 bu. 

Buckwheat 1 bu. Peas, broadcast _ „.3 bu. 

Cabbage, to transplant % lb. Potatoes, cut tubers _ ;.10 bu. 

Carrots, in drills 3 to 4 lbs. Pumpkins, in hills „ 4 to 6 bu. 

Chinese sugar cane 12 qts. Eadish, in drills „ 8 to 10 lbs. 

Corn, in hills 8 to 10 qi^. Eye, broadcast 1% to 2 bu. 

Corn, for soiling. _.3 bu. Sage, in drills 8 to 10 bu. 

Cucumbers, in hills _ 2 lbs. Salsify, in drills 8 to 10 lbs. 

Flax, broadcast _ 1% bu. Spinach, in drills 10 to 12 lb-?. 

Hemp _ 1^ bu. Squash, bus. var., in hills...4 to 6 lbs. 

Mustard, broadcast ^2 lb. Tomatoes to transplant ^ lb. 



170 



Seeds; Standard Weights, Time to Germinate. 



Melon, musk, in hills 2 to 3 lbs. 

Melon, water, in hills 4 to 5 lbs. 

Millet, broadcasL 3 to 3 bu. 

Oats, broadcast 2 to 3 bu. 



Turnips, in drills V^ to 2 lbs. 

Turnips, broadcast. 3 to 4 lbs. 

Vetches, broadcast..^ ^.2 to 3 lbs. 

Wheat iy2 to 2 bu. 



STANDARD WEIGHT OP SEEDS. 



Alfalfa Clover, per bu 60 lbs. 

Alsike Clover 60 lbs. 

Barley 48 lbs. 

Beans 60 lbs. 

Broom Corn 46 lbs. 

Buckwheat 48 lbs. 

Canary Seed -■ 60 lbs. 

Castor Beans ' 46 lbs. 

Clover Seed, red 60 lbs. 

Clover Seed, white 60 lbs. 

Clover Seed, crimson 60 lbs. 

Clover Seed, Japan 25 lbs. 

Clover Seed, Burr, measured... 8 lbs. 

Corn, shelled, Adams 50 lbs. 

Corn, shelled, Sugar 46 lbs. 

Corn, shelled. Field 56 lbs. 

Corn, on ear 70 lbs. 

Flax Seed 56 lbs. 

Grass Seed, English Rye 20 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Italian Rye 20 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Meadow Fescue...! 5 Ib^. 

Grass Seed, Orchard 14 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Kentucky Blue...l4 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Timothy 45 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Hungarian 48 lbs. 



Grass Seed, Johnson 25 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Meadow Oats 14 lbs. 

Grass Seed, Rescue 14 lbs. 

Hemp Seed 44 lbs. 

Irish Potatoes, heaped meas...60 lbs. 
Millet, German and Italian._50 lbs. 

Mustard _ 58 lbs. 

Oats 32 lbs. 

Osage Orange 33 lbs. 

Onions 54 lbs. 

Onion Sets 32 lbs. 

Peas, Cow 60 lbs. 

Peas, English, smooth seed 60 lbs. 

Peas, English, wrinkled 56 lbs. 

Rape Seed 50 lbs. 

Rye 56 lbs. 

Radish Seed 50 lbs. 

Sweet Potatoes. 56 lbs. 

Sorghum 50 lbs. 

Sunflower, Russian 24 lbs. 

Teosinthe 50 lbs. 

Turnip 58 lbs. 

Vetch 60 lbs. 

Wheat 60 lbs. 



APPROXIMATE TIME FOR CERTAIN VARIETIES OF SEEDS TO 

GERMINATE. 

Asparagus 20 days. Mustard - 6 days. 

Beans 8 days. Okra 10 days. 



Work for Different Months. 



171 



Cabbage 8 days. 

Cauliflower 10 days. 

Celery 14 days. 

CoUards 10 days. 

Corn 8 days. 

Cucumbers 8 days. 

Egg plant 10 days. 

Lettuce ., 4 days. 

Watermelons 10 days. 

Cantaloupes 8 days. 



Onions 10 days. 

Parsley 20 days. 

Peas - 8 days. 

Pepper 10 days. 

Pumpkins 8 days. 

Radish 4 days. 

Spinach 8 days. 

Tomatoes 10 days. 

Turnips 4 days. 

Tobacco 10 days. 



SEEDS EEQUIRED TO PRODUCE A GIVEN NUMBER OF 

PLANTS. 

Cabbage, 1 ounce to 2000 plants. Onion seed^ 1 oz. to 200 feet drill. 

Cauliflower, 1 ounce to 3000 plants. Tomatoes, 1 ounce to 3000 plants. 

Cucumbers, 1 ounce to 80 hills. Tobacco, 1 ounce to 5000 plants. 
Egg plants, 1 ounce to 2000 plants. 



WORK FOR THE DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE YEAR IN THE 
SOUTHERN ORCHARDS AND TRUCK FIELDS. 

In giving explicit direction of what to plant and the proper time to plant, 
especially in the Southern vegetable garden, in each month of the year, 
it must be unders-tood at the beginning that, the Southern States represent 
a wide territory, averaging about 1,000 miles in length from the extreme 
Southern portion to the Northern lines, where the markets for early 
Southern fruits and vegetables starts. This vast territory comprises a 
climate from tropical, semi-tropical to the temperate zone, and as each zone 
has its respective season for either planting or harvesting its fruits and 
vegetables, it would be impossible to apply one set of directions to cover the 
proper period of planting with any degree of reliability for the entire South. 

Below latitude 30° or Ish. of Suez, below Tampa in Florida or New 
Orleans in Louisiana, below Corpus Christi in Texas, where killing frosts 
seldom appear, tender varieties of vegetables, such as pepper, beans, 
cucumbers, squash, corn, egg-plants, melons and tomatoes may be planted 
in all of the fall and winter months, regardless of any specific directions; 



l'<3 WorTc for Different Months. 

above latitude 30° or Ish. of Suez, frosts occur regularly in certain months 
of the year, and all tender garden truck must be planted to conform as near 
as possible to visits of either early frosts in the fall or late frosts in the 
spring. 

Experience about weather conditions, by long residence in the different 
parts of the South, is naturally the best teacher for the Southern truckers, 
but where experience is lacking, by the new beginners, our directions may 
prove of considerable advantage. 

We admit that even our directions may avail but little on extraordinary 
occasions. Jack Frost is no respecter of persons or territory. He has been 
known to skip across the Gulf of Mexico and pay a visit to the Cuban 
planter; even to Mexico, among the banana, orange and sugar plantations. 

We have seen the bay at Galveston, Texas, frozen over, with the mercury 
at 11° above zero, and again seen entire winters pass without the slightest 
frost at the very same place. 

These unusual occurrences demonstrate the fact that all planting of tender 
vegetables, in any part of the South, is attended with certain risks at any 
time during the fall, winter and spring months. Fortunately the seeds 
cost but little, and the up-to-date Southern truck farmer is rarely intim- 
idated by probabilities of frosts, and it is safer to plant and run the risk, 
and immediately plant again, should the crop be lost by frosts, as the 
ground is usually prepared and in condition to replant at once. 

These uncertain conditions are really what makes the early vegetable 
valuable. If there were no destructive frosts either North or South, there 
would be no occasion to ship early vegetables to the Northern countries from 
the South. 

The gradual season of planting and harvesting vegetables from the South 
to the North is well defined. Having given this subject much thought in 
the past decade, we found upon close investigation of data, that the distance 
of every ten miles from South to North makes the product one day or 
twenty-four hours earlier, and in 1,000 miles 100 days earlier. Allowance 
must be made for altitudes, light, warm soils, timber or water protections, 
proper moisture, heavy fertilizing, diligent cultivation, early maturing 
beeds and intelligent planting, which are all items that hasten any crop 
to maturity, the same as the lack of any of the items would retard the crop. 

The directions we give in our book, The Modern Guide, for the planting 
of different fruits and vegetables in the South for different months apply 
only south of the line drawn below the center of latitude 35° Tripoli and 
latitude 30° Ish. of Suez; in plainer explanation, south of Charleston in 
South Carolina, south of Macon, Ga., south of Montgomery, Ala., south 



Work for January. 173 

of Jackson, Miss,, south of Shreveport, La., and south of Waco, Texas. For 
points North and above this line, tender vegetables and fruits must be 
planted earlier in the fall to avoid early frosts, and later in the spring to 
avoid late frosts. 

For directions for planting, cultivating, harvesting, packing and shipping 
the different fruits and vegetables, read Part II of this book. 



JANUARY. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

Spinach, mustard, carrots, beets, turnips and leeks may be sown, also 
early varieties of radishes. 

Early varieties of turnips and rutabaga for table use can also be sown. 

Sow lettuce, endive, cabbage and early cauliflower. As the weather is 
very unstable, it is best to sow in a frame and protect young plants during 
severe cold weather. 

If the hotbed has not been prepared already during the previous month, 
it should be done at once, to sow now egg-plants, pepper and tomatoes ; the 
latter can be sown a little later than the former. 

Plant peas for general crop, such as black-eyed and large White Marrow- 
fat, Champion of England, Telephone and other varieties. Toward the end 
of this month the extra early varieties, like First and Best, Jjittle Gem 
and Alaska, may be planted. 

Divide and transplant shallots; also set out cabbage plants sown in 
November. 

Onions, if not already transplanted, should be hurried now, so that they 
may have time to bulb. Those who desire to raise onion sets should sow 
the seed toward the end of this month, as onion sets which are set out 
early in the fall can be sold earlier than those raised from seed. 

Cucumber seed can be planted now for forcing. It is best to plant the 
seeds in flower pots first, and when the third leaf is developed, transplant 
into the field. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Plant potatoes. The Bliss Triumph should not be planted before the 
latter part of this month. 

Asparagus roots should be set out this month ; also Texas Red Rust Proof 
Oats may be sown. 



174 Work for-Febriuiry. 



IN THE ORCHARD. 

Fruit trees of all kinds, such as pear, plum, peach, apple and orange, as 
well as other varieties of fruit trees, should be planted. 

Sow pecans now. This and the following may be considered the best 
months to set out fruit trees. Plant strawberry plants. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Continue to sow flower seeds during this month for spring and early 
summer blooming. The best varieties for now are Verbena, Phlox, Petunia, 
Summer Chrysanthemum, Lychnis, Flax, Scarlet Sage, Hollyhock, Sweet 
Alyssum, Aster, Columbine, Daisy, Wall Flower, Bell Flower, Sweet Sultan, 
Correopsis, Sweet William, Japan and Carnation Pinks, Larkspur, Cali- 
fornia Poppy, Heliotropium, White and Red Everlasting Flowers. Candy- 
tuft, Lobelia, Monkey Flower, Love in a Mist, Evening Primrose, Sweet 
Mignonette. Set out rose bushes and flowering ornamental shrubs. 



FEBRUAEY. 



IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 



All winter vegetables can be sown this month, such as spinach, mustard, 
carrots, beets, parsnips and leeks ; also the early varieties of radishes, Wliite 
Spring and Early Purple Top turnip. Lettuce, cabbage and early cauli- 
flower may be sown. 

Cauliflower and cabbage plants should be transplanted, shallots divided 
and set out again. 

All varieties of peas can be planted in this month, especially the early 
varieties. 

This is the proper month to sow asparagus seed, also to plant the roots 
of this vegetable, if not done so previously. 

Hotbeds, on account of the changeable weather during this month, re- 
quire a good deal of attention. Give air when the sun shines and the 
weather is pleasant, otherwise plants will become spindly and long-legged. 
If too thick, thin them out so that they may become sturdy. 

You may begin to plant bush beans as soon as the weather permits ; also 
cucumbers, squash and melons may be planted, as they often succeed if pro- 
tected by small boxes covered with glass, as most gardeners do. 

At the end of ,this month early com can be planted. For market use, 
Adams' Extra Early. 



Work for March. 175 

IS THE FIELD. 

February is the best month to plant a general crop of potatoes, as on an 
average they will succeed better if planted during this month than any other. 

Mangel Wurzel and sugar beets should be sown this month for stock 
food. Sweet potatoes may be put in a bed for sprouting, so as to have early 
slips. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Plant fruit trees of all kinds, especially orange and pecan trees. Pecans 
may be sown during this month to raise trees from. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Sow flower seed for late spring and early summer, such as Zinnia, Bal- 
sams in frame, difEerent varieties of Amaranthus. 

Set out bushes and ornamental shrubs; sow Sweet Alyssum, Candy- 
tuft, Snapdragon, Pansy, Aster, Chinese and Japan Pinks, Daisies for late 
blooming, Lobelia, Reseda, Bottle Pink and Sweet Sultan. Phlox and Ver- 
bena may still be sown. Sow Sunflower, Sensitive Plant and Rosa Montana. 



MARCH. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

Sow beets, radishes and early varieties of cabbage, kohlrabi, lettuce, spin- 
ach, mustard, carrots, leeks, parsley, cabbage and lettuce. 

Plant now all varieties of bush and pole beans; but for lima beans it is 
better to wait until the end of the month, as they rot easily when the 
ground is not warm enough or too wet. 

Squash, cucumbers, melons and okra can be planted. Early varieties 'of 
peas may still be planted; set out tomatoes, egg-plants and peppers in the 
open ground and sow seed for later crop. Plant sweet corn. 

IN THE FIELD. 

At the end of the month sow sorghum, kaffir corn and milo maize for 
stock food. 

Potatoes may still be planted, but all depends upon the season. Some 
years they do as well as those planted during the previous month. In fact 
we have seen the finest crop raised from potatoes which had been planted 
on the 15th of this month. Sweet potatoes can still be planted. 



176 Work for April. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Fruit trees may be planted the early part of this month, or even later if 
the season is somewhat retarded. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Sow Balsam, Zinnia, Amaranthus, Torenia, Dahlia, Cockscomb, Cosmos, 
Portulacca, Browallia and Sunflower, Plant Gladiolus, Tube roses and 
Dalia bulbs. Set out Chrysanthemums for fall blooming. 



APRIL. 



IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

In this month sow bupli, pole and lima beans, sweet corn, cucumbers, 
squash, melons, cantaloupes and okra, beets, carrots, radishes, lettuce, mus- 
trd and parsley. Sow tomatoes, egg-plants and peppers. 

It is rather late to sow cabbage seed now, but if sown the early varieties 
may be successfully used. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Plant sweet potato slips for early crop, dig Irish potatoes planted early, 
and after well preparing the ground, plant corn, beans, squash, etc., in it. 

Sow Cashaw and field pumpkins. 

German millet should be sown this month. The ground ought to be well 
plowed and harrowed. Three pecks of seed is the quantity to be sown per 
acre. After sowing, roll the ground well and the seed will require no other 
covering. If no roller is handy, some brush tied together ought to be 
passed over the grown sown, and this will effectually cover the seed. 

Every planter should give this forage plant a trial. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Little is to be done during this month, except perhaps, if the weather 
is favorable, budding orange trees on Trifoliata stools; keep young trees 
clean of weeds, and during a dry spell water those which were lately trans- 
planted. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Sow Balsam, Zinnia, Portulacca, Gomphrena, Torenias and Amaranthus, 
Celosia. Plant Coleus and other foliage plants, Dahlias and Chrysanthe- 
mums. Sunflower, Gladiolus and Tuberose bulbs. 



Work for May. l'^^ 

MAY. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

During this month very few vegetables can be sown. Hardly any of the 
winter varieties if sown now will do well. The ground should be occupied 
by growing crops. 

Wliere potatoes and onions were taken up, corn, melons, cucumbers, 
squash and pumpkins may be planted. 

Yellow and white summer radishes and endive may be sown. 

During the hot weather lettuce requires a good deal of water, as it will, 
if neglected, soon become hard and tasteless. 

Large White Solid celery may be sown now, but must be well shaded, and 
if the weather is dry, should be regularly watered. 

Late Italian cauliflower may be sown. 

Lima or pole beans can be planted; the Southern Prolific is the best 
variety for late planting. 

IN THE FIELD, 

Cow peas can be planted now between the corn ; or the Crowders in rows. 
The latter is the best to be use green. If cow peas are sown for fertiliz- 
ing purposes, one bushel per acre should be used and plowed under when 
the ground is well covered with vines, or sometimes they are left until fall, 
when they commence to decay, and then plowed down. It is best, how- 
ever, to plow them down when they have the most foliage, that is while they 
are blooming, as they then contain the most fertilizing properties. We con- 
sider cow peas the cheapest and most beneficial fertilizer for worn-out 
land. 

Sweet potato slips can still be set out, taking advantage of an occasional 
rain ; but if it does not rain they must be watered. As the tops of shallots 
get dry, which indicates their being ripe, they are fit to be taken up. 

Pull them up and expose to the sun for a few days, and then store away 
in a dry, airy place, taking care not to lay them too thick, as they are 
liable to heat. 

Sorghum can still be planted, and as it resists considerable drought, will 
do fairly well. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Besides budding, nothing can be done. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Follow instructions given for last month. 



178 Work for June. 



JUNE. 



IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

The sowing during this month is similar to the preceding; that is, not 
a great deal can be sown. The growing crops will require attention, as 
weeds grow fast now. 

Corn may be planted for the last supply of roasting ears; also a few 
water and musk melons. Cucumbers, squash and pumpkins planted during 
this month generally do well; but if the weather is hot and dry, they re- 
quire an abundance of water. 

Southern Prolific pole beans are the best to plant this month, as they 
stand more heat than any other variety. Continue to set out sweet potato 
slips. 

Sow yellow and white summer radishes. 

To sow lettuce during the summer months requires a great deal of at- 
tention; in fact, it requires more care than most people are willing to 
bestow. 

Before sowing, soak the seeds for half an hour in water, take them out, 
put in a piece of cloth and place in a cool spot under the cistern^ or, if con- 
venient, in an ice box. Keep the cloth moist, and in two or three days 
the seeds will sprout. Then sow them. It is best to do so in the evening, 
and give a good watering. 

If the seeds are sown without being sprouted, ants will be likely to carry 
them away before they can germinate. 

Should the weather be moist and cool in the fall it can be dispensed with. 

Some late cabbage for winter crops may be sown in this month, as the 
plants are generally easier raised during this than the following months; 
but we consider this month too early for cabbage seeds, as the plants be- 
come too hard and long-legged before they can be transplanted. 

Late Italian Giant cauliflower may still be sown at the early part of 
this month; toward the end Early Giant can be sown. Some cultivators 
transplant them, when large enough, at once from the seed bed into the 
open ground; others plant them first in flower pots, and transplant into 
the ground later. However, if transplanted at this time of the year they 
will have to be shaded for a few days and watered until they have taken 
a good hold. 

Sow tomatoes for late crop toward the end of this month. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Cow peas for fertilizing purposes can still be sown. Plant sweet potato 
slips for a late crop. 



Work for July. J-''"-^ 

IN THE ORCHARD. 



Nothing can be done. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Follow instructions given for April. 



JULY. 



IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 



Toward the end of this month plant pole and bush beans. In the earlj 
part sow tomatoes for the last crop; also, some corn for roasting ears. 

If the weather is favorable, corn may be planted also for stock food. 
Cucumbers can be planted for pickling; also Early Italian Giant cauli- 
flower, lettuce, yellow and white summer radishes. 

In new ground some turnips and rutabagas can be sown^ but it is better 
to wait until next month, as they are apt to become hard and stringy. 

After the 15th of this month, cabbage. Large Late Flat Dutch, Improved 
Drumhead, Crescent City Flat Dutch and Brunswick -may be commenced 
with. The above are the leading kinds. 

All cabbages require a strong, good soil, but the Brunswick and Flat 
Dutch in particular. 

The ground should be well fertilized with either stable manure, cotton 
seed meal or superphosphate; but we consider cow peas planted on the 
cabbage land and plowed under the best and cheapest fertilizer. 

The standard varieties, Superior Flat Dutch and Improved Drumhead, 
should be sown at the^ end of this month and during the next. 

A large quantity of seed must be sown at this time of the year, as it is 
sometimes very difficult to get a proper stand, and it is always better to 
have some plants left over than to be short. 

It is a very difficult matter to protect the young cabbage plants from 
the ravages of the insects, which are, especially after a mild winter, very 
plentiful. 

Strong tobacco water or tobacco dust has been found very beneficial ; also 
tobacco stems, cut fine and scattered over the ground, will keep them off 
to some extent. 

In the field, orchard and flower garden nothing can be done this month. 



180 WorJc for August and September. 

AUGUST. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

During this month gardeners in the South are very busy with sowing 
and planting. Bush beans, Extra Early and Washington peas can be 
planted; also continue to sow late cabbages, Drumhead Savoy. Sow Early 
Italian cauliflower at the early part of this month. This is the proper time 
to sow the Half Early Paris and other varieties. 

Sow parsley and lettuce. It is best to cover parsley seed with moss or 
brush until it begins to come up. 

Yellow turnip and White Strasburg radish may be sown during this 
month, and toward the end commence to sow the red varieties, such as 
Scarlet turnip. Half |Long French and Long Scarlet, also Black Spanish. 

Sow mustard and cress, all varieties of turnip and rutabaga. 

If not too hot and dry, beets of all kinds may be put into the ground; 
but it is better to wait until the following month. 

Carrots may be sown in the later part, if the weather is favorable; but 
if hot and dry, it is useless to do much, as seeds cannot come up well with- 
out being watered. 

White Solid, Dwarf Large Eibbed and Perfection Hartwell celery should 
be sown now. 

Set out shallots. Bed and White Kidney beans for shelling should be 
planted at the early part of this month. 

Set out tomato plants for late crop, if not done so last month. 

If celery plants are set out during this month they require to be shaded. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Potatoes saved from the spring crop should ee planted early this month 
for a winter crop; the smallest potatoes are selected for that purpose and 
are planted whole. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

If the weather is favorable orange trees may be transplanted during this 
month, and will generally do better than those transplanted in February. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Sow Balsam, Zinnia, Cockscomb, Gomphrena, etc., to bloom for No- 
vember 1. 



SEPTEMBER. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

In the early part plant bush beans, as they will bear before frost sets in. 



Work for October. 181 

Also plant early varieties of peas, such as Extra Early, Early Alaska and 
Washington. All kinds of radishes, carrots^ beets, parsley, lettuce, leeks, 
turnips, early cauliflower, kale, celery and mustard can be sown during this 
month. 

Begin sowing Creole and Bermuda onion seed after the 15th of this 
month, as these are the most important crops and should not be neglected. 

Transplant celery plants in ditches made for that purpose, and if the 
weather is favorable, set out cabbage and cauliflower plants. 

If the weather is not too hot and dry, spinach may be sown, but has to 
be well watered, otherwise it is impossible to get a stand. 

Some cabbage seed may be sown, but cabbage sown this month will gen- 
erally not do as well as seed sown during the previous month. 

Set out shallots, divide and transplant sorrel, sow turnip-rooted celery. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Continue to plant potatoes for an early winter crop. Use only small 
ones left over from a late spring crop, but do not cut them, as they are apt 
to rot. Plow under the cow peas and prepare land to set out cabbage and 
cauliflower plants. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Continue to bud if the weather is not too dry and the stools remain in sap. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

During the month flower seeds, such as pansy, daisy. Sweet Alyssum, 
Candytuft, Stocks, Phlox, Chinese, Japan, Marguerite and Carnation pinks, 
asters, etc., can be sown. Plant hyacinth bulbs for early blooming at the 
end of the month. Sow on your lawn English rye grass for winter lawn. 



OCTOBER. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

Onion seed can be sown up to the 10th of this month, but it is better 
to get them into the ground as soon as possible, so that the plants get large 
enough before cold weather comes on. 

Toward the end of this month, Black-eyed Marrowfat peas and English 
Windsor beans can be planted. 

Sow cabbage, spinach, cauliflower, kale, mustard, carrots, beets, leeks, 
parsley, lettuce and radishes. 

Shallots set out previously may be divided and set out again. 



182 Work for November. 

At the end of this month some of the celery which has been planted 
early may be earthed up. Water it frequently with soap water. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Eye, barley and Texas Eed Eust Proof oats should be planted for stock 
foot ; also orchard grass, red and white clover, alfalfa or Lucerne and Crim- 
son clover. Sow Eed Top, Kentucky Blue, Timothy and Eescue grass,. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Spray your fruit trees in order to destroy scale and other insects, and 
prepare land to set out more trees. If the weather is good and the trees 
are in sap, bud orange trees on to sour stock, but not on Trifoliata. 

Transplant strawberry plants; they have to be transplanted every other 
year, as they cannot be left in the same place for many years, as is done 
North. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Continue to sow flower seeds of all spring blooming varieties. Plant 
hyacinth, narcissus, tulip and lily bulbs, pansies, daises. Sweet Alyssum, 
Candytuft, Petunias, Phlox, Verbenas, Columbine, Chinese, Japanese and 
Carnation pinks, Snapdragon, Sweet William, Stocks and poppy.. 



NOVEMBEE. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

During this month continue to sow all varieties of winter vegetables aa 
during the previous month. 

Superior Large Late Flat Dutch and Improved Drumhead cabbage sown in 
this month will make fine heads in the spring, also other late and second 
early varieties. 

Sow Black-eyed Marrowfat and other late varieties of peas; they are not 
easily affected by frost as long as they are small, and during this time of 
the year they will not grow very fast. English Windsor beans may be still 
planted ; they are hardy enough not to be hurt by frost. 

Hotbeds should be gotten ready now for cucumbers; manure for same 
should be looked after; it ought not to be over one month old. 

Throw it together in a heap, and when heated fork it over agin so 
the long and short manure will be well mixed. 

The first vegetables generally sown in hotbeds are cucumbers. It is best 
to start them in two or three-inch pots, and when they have two rough 
leaves, transplant them into their place. Two good plants are sufficient 
under one sash. 



Work for December. 183 



IN THE FIELD. 



Continue to sow Texas Ked Rust Proof oats, rye, wheat, barley, all 
varieties of grass seed, red, white and crimson clover and alialfa. Set 
out cabbage and cauliflower plants and work those set out during the pre- 
vious month. 



IN THE ORCHAED. 

Prepare your land to set out fruit trees, transplant those which are dor- 
mant, and set out strawberry plants. 

IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Sow flower seeds of all kinds in boxes and transplant when large enough 
into open ground, such as pansy, daisy. Phlox, Petunia, Chinese and other 
pinks, Alyssum, Candytuft, wall flower, larkspur, Lobelia, Nierembergia 
and poppy. 

Set out rose bushes and other hardy plants. 

Plant hyacinths, tulips, narcissus, jonquils, Anemones and Ranunculus 
in, open ground or flower pots for forcing. 



DECEMBER. 

IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

During this month not a great deal is planted, as the ground is generally 
occupied by growing crops. 

Pease for general crop may be planted; some potatoes could be risked, 
but on account of cold weather during January and February, it is very 
uncertain whether they will succeed or not. 

Spinach, radishes, carrots, lettuce and some early cabbage may be sown. 

Sow early varieties of cauliflower, such as Early Erfurt, Half Early 
and Extra Early. Of early cabbage, sow Early and Large York, Oxheart 
and Winningstadt. 

Sow tomatoes for forcing in a cooled-off hotbed, the best kinds for that 
purpose being the Extra Early Dwarf and Dwarf Champion, The former 
is really a good acquisition; it is very productive and of good size, and 
bears the fruit in clusters. 

These varieties will only sell for the first crop, as the fruit is not as large 
as the Livingston varieties, which come in later. 



IH-i Raising Vegetables for Shipping. 

IN THE FIELD. 

Sow alfalfa, red, white and crimson clover, all varieties of grass seed, 
rye, barley, wheat and oats for stock food, which, if the weather is favor- 
able, will do well. 

IN THE ORCHARD. 

Prepare ground for fruit trees during this month, and toward the end 
begin to plant some. 

Sow pecans to raise trees from. 

Prune, work and fertilize trees which have been planted during the pre- 
vious season. 

IN THE FLOVTER GARDEN. 

Plant hyacinths, tulips and Japan lilies. Sow all varieties of winter 
and spring blooming flower seeds in cold frames to be set out in January 
and February, as, for instance. Lobelia, asters, pansy, daisy. Phlox, Petunia, 
Chinese and other pinks, Alyssum, Candytuft, wall flower. Larkspur, Nie- 
rembergia, poppy, hollyhock, Snapdragon, Flos Adonis, Calleopsis, helio- 
trope. Primula and Reseda. Set out roses and other hardy plants. Plant 
English rye grass for your winter lawn. 



A FEW REMARKS ON RAISING VEGETABLES FOR SHIPPING. 

Truck farming or the raising of vegetables for shipping to the Northern 
and Western markets is a very important and growing industry. 

With better facilities for placing our truck on the markets, a greater 
knowledge acquired by past experience, of the best methods of packing, 
etc., and the natural advantages of our climate, this business can be made 
a very profitable one. 

Almost every kind of vegetable is shipped from here, but beans, cucum- 
bers, beets, tomatoes, cabbage and peas form the bulk of shipment. For 
beans, the Dwarf Wax, Improved Valentine, "Best of All," and Extra Early 
Refugee are principally planted for shipping purposes; the last two carry 
well and find ready sale. The wax varieties do well in a dry season, but 
in a wet one they are very apt to spot, which makes them unfit for ship- 
ping. The WardwelFs Kidney Wax and Dwarf Flageolet have the pref- 
erence among the dwarf sorts. The Golden Cluster Wax Pole is the best 
kind and follows the dwarf varieties in close succession. If they have 
had a good season to grow, so they arrive in good order at destination, they 
will sell higher than any other variety. The "Crease Back'' — a green 



Raising Vegetables for Shipping. 185 

podded pole bean introduced here by the late Richard Frotscher — is well 
adapted for shipping. It is very early and will follow the dwarf beans 
closely in maturing. Thousands of bushels of green pods are shipped from 
New Orleans to Western markets. They arc generally stenciled "Mobile 
Beans," which name is wrongly applied. Very few of the variety are planted 
at that place. 

In the way of cucumbers, the Long Green and New Orleans Mar- 
ket are the best varieties, as they bear abundantly, keep their color 
better, and are superior for shipping to any other. We have been 
supplying the largest growers in this vicinity in that line with seed, the 
Rtock of which cannot be surpassed in quality. Of beets, only the Dark 
Eed Blood Turnip or the Egyptian should be planted for shipping pur- 
poses. The Egyptian is a very quick growing variety, and should not be 
sown quite so early as the Blood Turnip, which ought to be sown in Sep- 
tember and October; for the former variety January is time enough. The 
seed for the strain of beets which we recommend is raised in Connecticut, 
it is a dark red, very early and cannot be surpassed for shipping purposes. 
Several new varieties have come into cultivation, some lighter in color, like 
the Lentz and Dewings ; they are a trifle earlier, but do not come up to 
the strain of Extra Early Dark Blood Turnip. The Eclipse is another good 
variety, but is smaller. Also introduced by the late Richard Frotscher. 

For tomatoes, Extra Early Dwarf comes in bearing first, but should be 
planted only for the first crop, as when large varieties come in the market 
the former do not sell as well. Great improvements have been made of 
late years in tomatoes; the varieties raised and introduced by Livingston's 
Sons are perfect, and hardly any improvement can be made on such 
varieties as the Paragon, Favorite, Acme and Beauty. 

Lettuce is shipped quite extensively; the Kew Boston Market is used 
principally, and cannot be excelled for that purpose by any other variety. 

The onion crop is one of the surest and most profitable. From Creole 
seed failure to make a crop is almost unknown. 

Early potatoes pay well. 

Cabbage is by far the most important and profitable crop we have. It 
is the mainstay of the truck farmer. 

The musk melon is also usually a good p aying crop. In favorable 
seasons, when the quality is good, the demand is large and prices high. 

Egg-plants have been shipped in large quantities of late years. 

Carrots and turnips ship well, and paying prices generally are to be had. 

Radishes have also proved to be a profitable shipping crop. 



THE HOTBED. 

On account of the mild winters in the South, the hotbed for forcing 
vegetables is but little used by the Southern trucker, except to start the 
germination of seeds, such as tomatoes, pepper and egg plants, and yet the 
hotbed, assisted by cold frames, can be made a valuable adjunct to modern 
Southern truck farming, because the hotbeds for starting the seed and the 
cold frame to transplant the young plants several times to make them hardy 
and stocky, enables the Southern growers to gain much valuable time. The 
early vegetables catch the early buyers and the top prices. Even a few 
days or a week makes a big difference in tlie prices and amply repays the 
trucker for the labor and material required to construct and operate the 
hotbed and cold frames. 

The Southern gardener who expects to grow tender vegetables, such 
as tomatoes, egg-plants, pepper, cauliflower, cabbage or celery, without the 
assistance of the hotbed and cold frames, is not up-to-date and cannot 
expect to compete with the more intelligent grower. 

To make a hotbed is a very simple matter. Anyone who has the use 
of tools can make the wooden frame; the sashes can be obtained from any 
sash factory. We consider a wooden frame from five to six feet wide and 
ten feet six inches long a very good size. It should be at least six inches 
higher at the back than in the front, and covered by three sashes 3V2x5 
feet. The manure ought not to be more than a month old; it should be 
thrown together in a heap, and when commencing to heat, be worked over 
with a fork, and the long and short manure evenly mixed. 

In low ground the manure should be placed on the top of the ground; 
make the bank of manure two feet longer and two feet wider than the 
frame, as the cold soil would absorb the heat too rapidly. On elevated or 
sloping ground, a trench may be dug to conform with the size of the 
frame two feet deep. Keep the edges straight and the corners firm; when 
the manure is about eighteen inches trample down to six or eight inches, 
then put another layer of eighteen inches and trample down again; place 
thereon the frame and sash and fill in six inches of good earth. After 
about five days stir the ground to kill the weeds which may have come 
up, then sow the seeds, either broadcast or in drills. 

After the plants are up, the minutest daily care must be bestowed upon 
the proper heat of the bed, by constantly watering with tepid water and 
airing the plants; on warm days, when there is no frost in the atmos- 
phere or severe cold wind, uncover the beds. The life of the plants de- 
pends on this constant attention, and remember, the more air your plants 



How to Make and Operate a Cold Frame. 187 

get, the hardier and stockier they will be. If seeds are sown too thick and 
plants are crowded, they will grow spindling, soft and hard to handle. 
Every little plant must have its little room in order to develop into a 
useful' plant. After the young plants lose what is termed the seed leaves 
and show growth of the permanent leaf, the plants are ready for the cold 
frame. At first, plant the little plants about two inches apart each way; 
after from two to four weeks old, or as soon as the plants become crowded, 
replant in another cold frame about six inches apart each way, and keep 
all cover off on warm days. Plants treated in this way will be hardy, large 
and even show bloom buds when ready for the fields. Many gardeners, 
at the last transplanting, use pots to plant them in, which are taken to 
the field and the plants are set with the entire contents of the pots adher- 
ing to the roots. This is a self-evident advantage, as the plants hardly 
realize the change and continue to grow without even wilting down when 
copiously watered. The main idea is to gain time, and all of these minute 
attentions to the plants accomplish the object. 



HOW TO MAKE AND OPERATE A COLD FRAME. 

Select any piece of ground well drained and handy to water, and, if 
possible, sheltered from the cold north wind by a house, barn, fence or 
hedge. Plow or spade the ground. Now get some boards 1x12 ; set up 
on edge east and west parallel 4 or 5 feet apart. Set the north board on 
top of the ground ; lower the south board four inches in the ground ; this 
gives you a slope to the south. Get some short boards to close the ends; 
bank up the soil or manure on the outside all around. Nail sor.ie slats 
acro-.s the top every four feet to hold the frame firm. Now get some 
good, rich soil from your barnyard, not too strong, and sift this lul'j V'ur 
frame, so as to raise the side four inches above the outside soil. This 
jnRires drainage after heavy rains. Rake and pulverize woU. 

The beds are now ready for transplanting the young plant removed from 
the hotbeds. 

From now on watch the weather report; if reported that the tempera- 
ture may fall below the freezing point, cover up ; keep covered until danger 
is past. Never uncover in bright sunlight. For cover you can use glass 
sash, domestic, old sacks, doubled and sewed together, or boards across the 
top, covered with manure or hay; be careful not to leave any opening for 
the cold wind. 

The earliness of the crop will depend on the condition of the weather 
and the care that is bestowed on the plants in the frame and in the field 



188 Insects and Insecticides. 

We give first the formulas and receipts for mixing the different in- 
after the plants are set out; remember plenty manure and plenty cultiva- 
tion are the watchwords for an early vegetable crop. 



INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES. 

There will be no need for us to dwell upon the importance of insects and 
their destructive habits in the orchard, fields, gardens or poultry yards, 
and the remedies for the same, as any one familiar with farm life has 
observed the tenacity of insect life, the multiplication and rapid repro- 
duction of the species (many of the minutest becoming grandparents in 
less than 24 hours), will agree with us on the importance of the subject. 
Indeed, the time has arrived when all culturists must provide safeguards 
and remedies for insects to protect their crops, the same as they must pro- 
vide seeds, fertilizers, cultivation and even lands to plant the crop on. It 
is therefore advisable for our readers to study this chapter closely, as often 
a preventive or a cure may be the means of saving an entire crop, the crops 
of an entire neighborhood or country. 

The department of agriculture reports the annual loss by insects on 
farms, orchards, gardens and forests in the United States to amount to 
$7,141,200,000 ever year, or more than enough to run the budget of the 
annual expenses of the entire national government. 

secticides, to be followed by instructions on how to apply to each fruit or 
vegetable enumerated in this book. 



FOEMULAS. 



Any of the sprays mentioned can be applied with comparative safety to 
any plant or foliage if moderation and judgment is used. Personally, we 
are strong advocates of Bordeaux mixture, as it has so many good qualities. 

' PAKIS GREEN FORMULA. 

Paris Green 1 pound 

Fresh (unslaked) lime 1 pound 

Water. „ _. -200 gallons 

Paris green is heavier than water, and the mixture must be kept in con- 
stant motion during spraying operations to prevent settling. 

If is often adulterated. 

Gypsum and slaked lime are two adulterations commonly used. 



Formulas for Insecticides. 1^9 

Pure Paris green dissolves without sediment in ammonia; the adulterant 
will not. This affords a simple test for purity, 

Paris Green, if used on growing plants greatly in excess of the above 
formula, may injure the foliage. The addition of the lime overcomes the 
caustic properties and renders it safe under all conditions. 

Dry Paris Green may be used pure if applied in small quantities. Dif- 
ferent "dry powder guns" have been invented for this purpose. 

POISON FOR BITING INSECTS. 

Arsenate of lead 2, pounds 

Water ~ ~ - ~ - 50 gallons 

Arsenate of lead is a combination of white arsenic, sugar of lead and sal 
soda. It may be prepared by combining these materials in proper propor- 
tion, but the process involves considerable labor and danger, as the in- 
gredients must be combined by boiling. At least two firms now offer thia 
valuable insecticide prepared ready for use, viz. : 

The Bowker Insecticide Co., Boston, Mass., and the Merrimac Chemical 
Co., Boston, Mass. 

The Bowker Company's preparation is sold as "Disparine,'' and the 
other as Swift's "Arsenate of Lead." 

Arsenate of lead is less liable to injure foliage than Paris Green. 

It remains longer in suspension. 

It adheres better to foliage. 

It may be used for any purpose for which Paris Green is employed in 
liquid sprays. Disparine was used in past season, and with perfect satis- 
faction. 

WHITE HELLEBORE. 

Powdered white hellebore is commonly employed to destroy currant and 
cabbage worms and on fruits and vegetables where more poisonous sub- 
stances cannot be used with safety. 

White hellebore _ -.1 ounce 

Water __ 2 or 3 gallons 

It may also be used dry either alone or mixed with flour, land plaster, 
soot, etc. 

White hellebore is scarcely poisonous to the higher animals, and may be 
used freely on fruits and vegetables at any stage of maturity. 

KEROSENE EMULSION. 

Used only to destroy sucking insects. It may be applied to the insects, 
and cannot be used as a preventive. 



190 Formulas for Fungicides. 

This is the standard remedy for sucking insects. 

Dissolve one pound hard soap in two gallons of boiling water. 

While hot add two quarts of kerosene. 

Churn or shake the mixture while hot for five or ten minutes or until 
it assumes a creamy consistency. 

Add six gallons of water before using. 

Another plan consists in using sour milk instead of the soap water, the 
object in either case being to hold the kerosene in suspension while it is 
applied to the insects. 

The most approved method of applying kerosene is by means of a special 
pump designed to mix kerosene and water. These pumps are made by 
different firms in various sizes, from a hand-pump or syringe, which may be 
had for 75 cents, to a barrel pump costing $20. This is the cheapest, most 
agreeable and by all means the best method of applying kerosene. 

FUNGICIDES. 

The control of fungus diseases is accompanied by the use of some form 
of copper salts, usually copper sulphate or copper carbonate. 

The former, known as blue stone, blue vitriol, etc., is generally recognized 
as more efficient than the latter. When purchased in large quantities it is 
also cheaper. 

Copper sulphate may be used on dormant plants when dissolved in water 
at the rate of two pounds to fifty gallons of water, but this solution must 
not be used on growing plants. 

Copper sulphate in combination with fresh lime forms the standard and 
well-known fungicide. 

BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 

Various formulas are quoted, but the following is now accepted as safe 
and reliable : 

Copper sulphate 5 pounds 

Fresh lime .-. 5 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

In general terms the copjer sulphate should be dissolved in one-half of 
the water, the lime slaked in the remainder, and the two solutions poured 
together. This results in a chemical action giving rise to a new substance, 
preserving the fungicidal properties of the copper sulphate, and if properly 
made will not injure foliage. 

MAKING BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 

(1) Have on hand three barrels and two pails (wood or fiber). 



Formulas for Fungicides. 191 

(3) Twenty-iive gallons of water in each of two of the barrels. 

(3) Dissolve five pounds of copper sulphate in one barrel by suspend- 
ing in a coarse burlap as near the surface of the water as possible; in thia 
way it will dissolve in a few* minutes, while if allowed to settle to the 
bottom it would require several hours, or even days, to dissolve. 

(4) Place the lime in a pail and slake by adding water slowly until a 
paste is formed. (The lime for Bordeaux mixture should be slaked ex- 
actly as for building purposes.) 

(5) Pour this lime paste into the second barrel and stir thoroughly. 

(6) Now pour into the third (empty) barrel first a pailful of copper 
sulphate solution, then a pailful of the lime water, or, better, let two per- 
sons work at the job, pouring together. 

(8) The resultant mixture should be of an intense blue color. If any 
tinge of green appears it is not good Bordeaux mixture. 

(9) The lime water should be strained to remove the coarse particles 
Avhich serve to clog- the nozzles in spraying. 

(10) Sufficient lime must be used to combine with all of the sulphate 
or harm will result. The formula given above ])rovides an excess, but 
such excess is preferable to a slight deficiency. Use all of the lime 
water. 

(11) Test the mixture. It is always advisable to test every barrel of 
the mixture before using to detect the presence of any free or uncom- 
bined copper, which might injure foliage. 

TEST NO. 1. 

Dip a bright, clean steel knife into the prepared Bordeaux mixture; 
if any, even the sliglitest, deposit of copper appears on the blade, after a 
few moments' exposure to the air, it is an indication that more lime is 
needed. 

Tl'.e knife blade should be thoroughly wiped lief ore using for a sec- 
ond test. 

TEST NO. 2. 

Ferro-cyanide of potassium may be purchased at any drug store. 

Place a small quantity (one ounce) in a bottle and add water slowly 
until nearly all of the yellow crystals are dissolved. Stir the Bordeaux 
thoroughly and dip out a few ounces in a saucer. Add a few drops of 
the ferro-cyanide solution; if any brown discoloration appears it is an 
indication that more lime is needed. This is a delicate and reliable test. 

The ferro-cyanide is a violent poison and should be labeled as such. 



192 li sfructions for Spraying. 

THINGS TO AVOID. 

(1) Do not use iron or steel vessels for the sulphate or Bordeaux. 
Not only will these be corroded, but the chemical action resulting from 
continued contact may injuriously affect the mixture. Tinned or galvan- 
ized pails are unsafe, as the zinc or tin coating is apt to be imperfect. 
ITso only wood, copper, earthenware or glass. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. 

Corrosixc Sublimate 15 gallons. 

Water 2 ounces. 

LIME^ SALT AND SULPHUR. 

Stone lime 50 pounds. 

Flow of sulphur _. 50 poimds. 

Stock salt — 50 pounds 

Water 150 gallons. 

C0MT1LVED INSECTICIDES. 

Paris green I/4 pound. 

Lump lime , 5 pounds. 

Copper sulphate 4 pounds. 

Water „.... 50 gallons. 

There are many other individual insecticides, such as tobacco dust, 

ashes, slugsliot, lime, salt, etc., for use in the seed beds and fields, which 
we will mention below. 

SPRAYING. 

Manufacturers supply the culturists with many devices for spraying, 
from the wagon to the hand-spraying pump, which are most commendable, 
according to their utility to accomplish the object with dispatch and econ- 
omy; the liquid that falls on the ground is mostly wasted, therefore the 
more penetrating and finer the spray, the more economy. In spraying, 
great care must be taken to spray as near as possible the under side of the 
leaves where the most insects are located. The reason two or three spray- 
ings are necessary is because the first spraying may kill all the live in- 
sects and yet fail to reach the eggs, which are deposited in concealed cor- 
ners and nooks of the plants. These will hatch in a few days, when a 
new spraying would become necessary to kill this new brood. 
As most spraying preparations are poisonous and injurious, caution should 



TrQnlnicnt of Vegetables. !!):> 

be used to keep the liquid from the eyes, mouth and skin as much as pos- 
sible, and personal cleanliness should be rigidly practised by the operator 
after spraying. 



VEGETABLES. 

Asparagus — For rust spray twice with the Bordeaux mixture, with an 
intermission of ten days. 

Beans — When the striped beetles, small black bugs, or white worms ap- 
pear on beans, spray twice with the kerosene emulsion, with three days 
interval. 

Beets — Beets have few enemies, except the crownborer and lice on the 
leaves; both may be destroyed by two applications of the kerosene emul- 
sion a few days apart. 

Cabbage — Club foot or root rot ; there is no remedy for these evils ex- 
cept change of ground, as cabbage grown in succession on the same land 
develops these diseases. Lice on cabbage may be destro3'ed effectually by 
spraying with the kerosene emulsion twice, with six days interval. Cab- 
bage worms may be checked by dusting the leaves while the cabbage is 
young with Paris green applied in the morning when the leaves are wet 
with dew; spraying with liquid Paris green or kerosene emulsion has also 
a pronounced effect to check the worms. For the cabbage moth and worm 
in the seed beds, apply after watering the beds, tobacco dust, slugshot or 
Paris green. 

Celery — Leaf blight in celery may be checked by spraying with Bor- 
deaux mixture every ten days until improvement appears; for the cater- 
pillar, dust with Paris green, slugshot or tobacco dust. 

Carrots — With the exception of the army worms and lice, carrcts are 
very free from enemies; should they appear, one spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture or kerosene emulsion will destroy either of them. 

Cauliflower — The treatment for worms and lice on cauliflower is the 
same as for cabbage, with the exception that more care must be exercised 
to keep any of the mixture from the flower, as it will turn the flower 
black and unsalable. 

Corn — Corn, especially sweet corn, is frequently infested with a worm 
in the endo. As a fly or moth flies at night and deposits the eggs from 
which the worm is hatched, there is no apparent remedy except to kill the 
moth by lights of fires at night. 

Collards — Collards, like cabbage, are frequently attacked by lieo and 
worms and the same treatment as for cabbage applies. 



194 Trcattuent of Vegetables. 

Cucumbers — The worst enemy of the cucumber is the yellow-striped 
bug ; some seasons this bug is so numerous and so persistent as to ruin entire 
crops and make the growing of cucumbers hazardous in some localities: 
The only remedy we ever found is daily hoeing and cultivation until the 
plants become hard enough to resist the attacks of this bug; no insect 
likes to be disturbed and persistence in getting after the bug is probably 
the best remedy; the sprinkling of lime, tobacco dust, sulphur or Paris 
green is commendable around the hills. 

Egg-Plants — Egg-plants are sometimes attacked by the leaf roller in 
some localities, also by worms and lice. Clean cultivation and spraying 
with the Bordeaux mixture or kerosene emulsion affords a remedy. 

Lettuce — Lettuce suffers mostly from the depredation of a small white 
worm and lice in droughty weather. A weak solution of either keroseno 
emulsion or Bordeaux mixture will prove a remedy when applied with the 
spray pump. In the greenhouse or hotbeds the only known remedy is to 
smoke the entire room with burning tobacco stems for twelve hours. 

Melons — Cantaloupes are attacked by the yellow striped bug, and the 
remedy for the bugs advised on cucumbers must be applied. Eust and 
blight occur in some localities on cantaloupes and destroy whole crops, and 
great care and caution must be exercised to combat these diseases; on 
the first appearance of rust or blight, or even the very first appearance of 
something wrong with the foliage, the whole field must be immediately 
sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture, and sprayed successfully three or four 
times every third day. This is the only remedy known and the whole crop 
may be lost by neglect; it is even advisable to spray the cantaloupes once 
when the first blooms appear, as this may act as a preventive. Cantaloupes 
are a valuable crop and the cost of spraying is insignificant with the profit- 
able results. 

Watej-melons — The watermelon louse and the yellow-striped bug are the 
only serious insects to attack watermelons and the spraying with the Bor- 
deaux mixture or kerosene emulsion will prove both a preventive and 
a cure. For watermelon blight or rust, spray the same as for canta- 
loupes. 

Onions — Many complaints are current from South\vest Texas, Florida 
and other Southern points about the destruction by the onion louse to the 
onion crop, and this louse is exceedingly difficult to check or destroy, be- 
cause the parent louse stings the onion tops and deposits the eggs on the 
inside of the tubes where they can develop and destroy the nutrition nec- 
essary for the bulb. Either dusting or spraying with insecticides avaik 
but little, as the young lice are safe and secure behind formidable walls. 



Treatuient of VeyaUblcf!. 195 

Where the onion field has become seriously affected and its destruction is 
feared, the tops must be cut off and removed from the field and burned 
with inflammable material; the field must be then thoroughly and slowly 
sprayed with the kerosene emulsion. The application of the kerosene 
emulsion once or twice on the first appearance of the louse will prove a 
preventive for infection and cure. 

Potatoes — Irish potatoes, in comparison to other plants, are affected with 
few diseases or insects; the potato blight may sometimes appear and the 
tops must be immediately sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture, and sprayed 
again in four days. The Colorado potato beetle is the worst insect to 
annoy the potato growers; dusting the tops with Paris green while the 
tops are wet with dew or rain is the best remedy, or the tops may be 
sprayed with the combined insecticide, Paris green, lime, copper sulphate 
and water. Read formula above. 

Potato Scab — Corrosive Sublimate _ 2 ounces. 

Water 15 gallons. 

Dissolve the corrosive sublimate in two gallons of hot water, then add 
balance of water. Allow solution to stand four or five hours, stirring oc- 
casionally. Place the seed potatoes in a coarse sack and immerse in solu- 
tion for one and one-half hours. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous, 
and care should be taken in handling it. 

Potatoes — Sweet potatoes up to this time have had but few enemies be- 
sides the gopher, but lately many questions are received in our Question 
and Answer Department about the sweet potato root borer. In some parts 
of South Texas the borers have become so bad that they ruin entire crops 
and even sweet potato culture is being gradually abandoned. 

Remedy — If a crop is once attacked there would be no remedy and the 
crop should be destroyed by fire. Plant your crop in entire new land 
where no sweet potatoes have been grown for several years, as the larvsa 
or eggs are deposited by the bug in the outer skin of the potatoes ; soak the 
sweet potato seed which you are about to use in corrosive sublimate, the 
same as Irish potatoes, for one hour. If this is done every year the borers 
will not trouble the potatoes. 

Spinach — Spinach is sometimes attacked by lice, especially during 
dry weather. Two sprayings of kerosene emulsion four days apart will 
prove en effectual remedy. 

Squash — The squash is attacked very generally while young by the yel- 
low-striped bug. Constant cultivation and sprinkling of lime, ashes or 
sulphur around the hill is the only remedy; for the squash bug the plants 
should be sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture. 



19(» Treatment of Fruits. 

Tomatoes — Early in the season tomato plants suffer quite severely with 
the tomato worm, similar to the tobacco worm. Hand-picking the worm 
or dusting the tomato vines with Paris green while wet with dew are the 
only remedies known. In the fall the fruit is subject to the common boll 
worm. All affected fruit should be immediately picked off and destroyed, 
the field kept clean by cultivation; spraying with the kerosene emulsion 
at intervals also checks the worms. As a moth deposits the egg in the young 
green tomatoes at night, there is but! little to be done, but the presence 
of any insecticide on the plants has the tendency to keep the moth away. 



FEUITS. 

Apples — The apple trees and fruits are subject to many diseases and 
insects, and spraying must be resorted to in all orchards during fruiting 
season, and the spraying must be done more to prevent the appearance of 
the diseases and insects, for after an apple orchard is once affected with 
the scab, leaf spot, bitter rot, rust, coddling moth, canker worm, cater- 
pillar or lice, most of the harm is already done. Spraying after these 
conditions exist may prove of benefit to the trees, but very little to the 
fruit. Where the orchard has suffered the previous year by these depre- 
dations the only safe way is to spray at once in the spring and continue 
to spray in regular periods, as described below, during the early growing 
season. The best spray for all the complaints is the Bordeaux mixture. 
The first spraying should be done after the buds are swollen, the next 
when the young fruit makes its appearance, the third spraying two weeks 
later and continued with two weeks intervals until the fruit is nearly 
grown, when all danger will be past. For wooly aphis remove the soil from 
the roots and apply water in which tobacco stems have been soaked or ap- 
ply tobacco dust, one pound to the tree and follow with water ; cover up the 
roots then and the wooly aphis will disappear. 

Pears — For pear blight, cut out all affected wood twelve inches below 
the dead wood and burn the same; keep the tree in as healthy con- 
dition as possible by perfect drainage and irrigation and clean cultivation. 
There is no other remedy or safeguard. For the codling moth or canker 
worm spray twice with the kerosene emulsion ten days apart. 

Peaches — The peach blight is the most serious drawback to peach cul- 
ture and is the recognized consequence of unseasonable, inclement weather, 
over which we have no control ; warm spells followed by cold weather in the 
spring is the main cause of blight, even if blight does not appear until 
late in the summer. Spraying the trees with any emulsion has no effect 



Treatment of Fruits. 19.7 

and does more harm than good, as it further devitalizes the tree; the only 
benefits that may be bestowed on a blighted peach tree is judicious trim- 
ming, clean cultivation, fertilizing to assist the tree as much as possible 
to regain its former strength and vitality. No other course can be pur- 
sued with satisfactory results in peach blight. For the peach borer, clean 
away the soil' twelve inches deep in the fall, wash the base of the trees 
with ashes and water, leaving the sediment of ashes around the roots in 
the hole; the borers may also be detected and removed with the knife; the 
hole should be left open until spring and then refilled. For the leaf curl, 
rot or curculio, spray the trees three times with the Bordeaux mixture in 
intervals of ten days. 

Plums and Persimmons — Both plums and persimmons are very com- 
monly attacked by the curculio, tree louse and leaf roller. Two sprayings 
of either kerosene emulsion or Bordeaux mixture eight days apart will 
prove an effectual remedy. 

Oranges — The worst enemies of orange culture are the scale insects, 
orange louse, blight or dieback. For the scale insects the spraying of the 
trees ten or fifteen days apart with the kerosene emulsion is an absolutely 
safe remedy. We have ourselves sprayed hundreds of orange, lemon and 
lime groves in Florida with the most flattering success. The scale insect 
is protected by inverted oval scale, glued to the bark of the limb or tree 
with a sticky, tenacious substance, emitted from the body of the scale; this 
glue or substance is not soluble in water, Bordeaux mixture or any other 
spray mixture, except kerosene, which at once loosens the scale and kilh 
the insect, but under the outside scale, which protects the parent scale, are 
numerous minute scales, perceptible only with the strongest microscopo, 
and these in turn will take the place of the parent scales, reproduce again 
the protected scales, and it follows that one spraying would avail but little; 
the trees must be sprayed at least three times and about ten days apart, 
and even then close watch must be kept all during the summer and fall 
period for succession of the scales which escaped the kerosene emulsion 
spray. The kerosene emulsion, if properly made and diluted, will not 
injure the young and tender foliage or the fruit. Orange mites are minute 
insects which locate only on the fruit, absorbing the oil of the peeling 
and cause the rind of the oranges to become dark or black, and these 
oranges are commonly known as Eussetts. These mites work mostly on 
the fruit in the shade and quite frequently we observe oranges quite yel-. 
low and bright on the side exposed to the sun, even describing the orbit 
of the sun by a complete circle of bright rind. The only remedy for the 
mites is spraying with the mixture known as the combined mixture of 



198 Budding and Grafting. 

Paris green, lime and copper sulphate, as described in our formula above. 
The young oranges must be sprayed while the size of hazelnuts, and again 
when the size of walnuts, and even later again should the mites persist in 
appearing. The die back or blight ocurs mostly in hammock and low, 
wet ground in the flat woods and on prairie; there is no remedy for this, 
except to trim back below the green and healthy wood. 

Figs — Figs have no insect enemies of any serious consequence; the fruit 
will drop before ripening, either from excessive moisture or extreme 
droughts; either drainage or irrigation must be applied. 

Grapes — Grapes are subject to many diseases and insects, such as the 
black rot, anthracnose, mildew, the grape cane borer, the grape leaf folder, 
the grape berry moth and grape louse. Grapes affected with the above 
should be at once treated to clean cultivation and all diseased wood re- 
moved with the pruning knife; the application of pure potash at the rate 
of about 150 pounds to the acre is of great benefit to all diseased grape 
orchards. Commencing in the spring when the buds begin to swell spray 
thoroughly with the Bordeaux mixture and repeat when the young fruit 
has made its appearance. Should signs appear of continued disease or 
insect, repeat the spraying several times during the summer. By following 
tlie above directions any diseased grape orchard may be placed in a 
healthy and vigorous condition. 

Plant Lice — In the hotbed, greenhouse, conservatory or on house and 
window plants, may be effectually destroyed by 2^-^ pounds of Quassin 
wood soaked in ten quarts of water and then well boiled, strained through 
a cloth and placed with 100 quarts of water in a kerosene barrel with five 
pounds of soft soap. The mixture is then ready for sprinkling upoix 
plants infested with lice. The most delicate plants are not injured by the ap- 
plication and the mixture may be covered over and kept from spring to 
fall without deterioration. The solution should be used as soon as the 
insects are found, and if it is repeated several times, they will entirely 
disappear. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 

The art of budding and grafting in horticulture is practiced for the pur- 
pose of obtaining fruits true to their specie, and to hasten the bearing of 
fruit trees, and for economic reasons. 

Also many of our choicest fruit trees are possessed of an inferior and 
weak root system and are vastly improved by being budded or grafted on 
well recognized, vigorous roots of other species of the same varieties of 



Budding. 199 

fruits. There are other advantages of budded fruit trees over seedling trees. 
Fruit from budded trees contain less seeds than on fruit trees propagated 
from seeds, and through constant budding many fruits have become en- 
tirely seedless, for Nature is quick to respond to the requirements of man. 
Budded trees are inclined to be slightly dwarfish in growth, and produce 
lower-crowned trees, which is also more of an advantage than otherwise 
in fruit trees, as it facilitates spraying, pruning and harvesting. 

The art of both budding and grafting is not difficult to learn as long as 
the principle is understood, and yet some practice is necessary before en- 
tirely satisfactory results can be expected, and by reading carefully our 
directions below any one may either bud or graft, with partial if not with 
entire success. 

BUDDING. 

A method of reproducing plants, and for perpetuating varieties by in- 
serting a bud or bud scion into a stock. There are numerous styles of 
budding, such as shield budding, square and circular shield budding, flute 
budding and ring budding. As shield budding is mostly used in this 
country, we will describe only that method. The bud is taken from wood 
of the present year's growth. Since the work of budding can only be done 
during the season of active growth, the bud-sticks are usually prepared so 
that the petioleon stem of each leaf is left attached to serve as a handle to aid 
in pushing the bud home, when inserting it beneath the bark of the stock. 
The stock for budding should be -at least as thick as an ordinary lead pencil. 
With the apple and pear a second-year growth will be necessary to de- 
velop this size, but with the peach a single season will suffice. Peach stocks 
can be budded the same season the pits are planted ; consequently the peach 
is left until as late in the season as is practical, in order to obtain suitable 
size of stock. The height at which buds are inserted varies with the opera- 
tion. In general, the nearer the ground the better. The cut for the recep- 
tion of the bud is made in the shape of the letter T usually, the cross-cut 
is made at a slight angle with the body of the tree, instead of at right 
angles to it, and the stem to the T starts at the cross-cut and extends 
toward the root for an inch or more. The flaps of the bark, caused by the 
intersecting of the two cuts, are slightly loosened with the ivor}'' heel of 
the budding knife, and the bud grasped by the leaf stem as a handle is 
placed under the flaps and firmly pushed in place, until its cut surface 
is entirely in contact with the peeled body of the stock. A ligature is 
then tightly drawn above and below the bud to hold it in place until a 
union shall be formed. Bands of Eafis Jute cloth, prepared with graft- 
ing Avax, ten inches long, make most convenient tying material. As soon 



200 Grafting. 

as the buds have united with the stock (taken), the ligature should be cut 
in order to prevent girdling the stock and bud. This done, the operation 
is complete until the following spring, when all the trees in which the 
buds have taken should have the top cut off just above the bud. This forces 
the entire strength of the roots into the bud, and since the root itself has 
not been disturbed by transplanting, a more vigorously growth usually 
results from^ the bud than from scions in whip or crown grafting. 

Budding is one of the most economical forms of artificial reproduction, 
and each year witnesses its more general use. 

Some nursery men have gone so far as to use it as a substitute for all 
other modes of grafting, save whip grafting, in the propagation of the 
dwarf pear. 

Budding is economical in the amount of wood used, from which to take 
buds or scions, since a single bud does the work of the three or more upon 
the scion of the cleft or whip graft. But it is expensive in the use of the 
stocks, a seedling being required for each tree, while with the piece-root 
system of grafting two or three or more stocks can be made from a single 
seedling. 

The one objection to budding is that it causes an unsightly crook in the 
body of the tree, unless the tree is planted deep enough in the orchard to 
cover the deformity. In vigorous climates, where trees, upon tender 
roots are likely to suffer from severe winters, like the orange, a bud 
of a hardy sort upon a tender root is no hardier than the root, because 
budding leaves a portion of the stock exposed above the surface of the soil, 
and thus precludes the possibility of the development of roots from the por- 
tion above the bud, while the piece-root grafted tree with a long scion is 
practically the same as a tree propagated from a cutting, as the scion will 
strike root and the new plant will be upon its own root. 

In regions -where severe winters do not enter as a factor, there are un- 
doubtedly a number of reasons why budding will be the most desirable 
method of reproducing horticultural varieties. 

GRAFTING. 

Grafting is an operation by which the cut surfaces of two branches or 
roots, either from two different plants or from the same plant, are caused 
to grow together. The portion used to perpetuate its kind, usually of the 
present or past season's growth, is called a scion. 

The portion into which the scion is inserted is termed the stock, and 
usually carries roots, or is part of a root, although in rare cases unrooted 
cuttings are used as stocks. The success of grafting depends entirely upon 



Whip Grafting. 201 

the ability of plants to heal wounds. When two wounded surfaces of cuts 
are so adjusted that the cambium layer of one coincides at any point with 
the cambium layer of the other, union by granulation of the two surfaces 
takes place, connecting between the conducting vessel of stock and scion 
becomes established, and new growth begins. The great value of grafting 
consists in the ease and comparative certainty with which cultural varieties 
can be increased without serious loss of type character. Were all forms 
of the art of grafting to be taken from the horticulturist, commercial fruit 
tree growing in its high state of perfection would decay with the orchards 
existing at this time. All horticultural varietes of sorts of fruits that be- 
long to the Pome, the Drup, of the citrus classes, are now multiplied almost 
wholly by grafting, which includes both budding and grafting. The most 
popular methods of grafting are the whip and the cleft. 

WHIP GRAFTING. 

For whip grafting of the roots the scion should be cut in the fall, be- 
cause spring cutting allows insufficient time for the union of the two sur- 
faces below growth starts. This style of grafting is the one most exten- 
sively used in root grafting. It is well suited to young plants or parts of 
plants used as stock, and to indoor work during leisure of winter. Both 
the stock and the scions are cut diagonally and smoothly, with a sharp 
knife, leaving about an inch of cut surface, across which, in both stock and 
scion, a slit is made parallel with the direction of growth. The one object 
to secure is the juxtaposition o± the cambium layers of the stock and scion. 
This may be accomplished by having the bark of the stock coincide with oi 
cross the bark of the scion at a slight angle. After the scion and stock 
have been joined they should be wrapped with several turns of cotton 
soaked in grafting wax, in order that the parts may be held firmly to- 
gether. The root of the stock may be left any convenient length from 
two and one-half to six inches, and the scion cut according. This cutting, 
however, is usually done before the joining of the two parts. In general, 
the shorter the root, the longer the scion, and vice-versa. The practice 
of the more vigorous climates tends to short piece-roots and long scions. 
The resulting trees, being deeply set over, send out roots from the scion 
and become own rooted, in which case they are believed to be superior to 
trees that obtain their nourishment solely through the foster root of a stock. 

No experiments have been conducted to settle this matter, but common 
experience is more in favor of the short root deeply set than the reverse. 
At planting time, root grafts thus made should be covered only to the top- 
most bud, the scion being left above the soil. If the graft is to be exposed 



202 Cleft Grafting. 

it should be covered with wax musliD or with hard wax. When deeply 
planted in a furrow, or witii dibble, the waxed cotlon will be ample pro- 
tection. 

CLEFT GHAFTING. 

Cleft grafting is particularly a(hipted to large trees when the varieties 
are to be changed. Branches too large to be worked by other methods may 
be cleft grafted. But as a rule the larger the branch the less satisfactory 
will be the result. A branch one or one and a half inches thick is severed 
with a sharp saw. The stub is then split with a thin chisel, or with a 
grafting instrument, and held open with a wedge, until the wedge-shaped 
scion is inserted and adjusted. The scion should consist of a portion of 
the previous season's growth of the variety to be propagated, and should 
be long enough to have two or three buds. In general, it is a good plan 
to cut the scion so that the basal or proximal bud shall be at the base 
of the opening of the triangle formed in cutting the scion into wedge 
sliape, necessary in this style of grafting. In addition to the advantage 
of having the proximal bud located as above described, the wedge of the 
scion should be made thicker on the side to face outward when the scion is 
in position. 

The advantage of this is that pressure is brought upon the outer growing 
parts of both scion and stock, whereas were the scion thicker on the inner 
side the condition would be reversed and the death of the scion would 
follow. The importance of having an intimate connection between the 
growing tissues of both scion and stock cannot be too strongly emphasized, 
for upon this alone the success of grafting depends. To make this contact 
of the growing portion doubly certain the scion is often set at a slight angle 
with the stock into which it is inserted, in order to cause the growing por- 
tions of the two to cross. 

Waxing, which is quite as important as the proper adjustments of all 
scions, be it budding, whip grafting or cleft grafting, consists in covering 
all cut or exposed surfaces with grafting wax, clay or some non-corrosive 
substance, which will exclude air and moisture. In warm climates the 
grafting wax should be made of harder and stiffer substance. For making 
grafting wax proper, read Part X of this book. 



PART V. 



IRRIGATION DRAINAGE AND FERTILIZERS. 



IRRIGATION. 



Irrigation is the systematic application of water to land, in order to pro- 
mote present or prospective vegetation. 

The art of irrigation is practiced for the reason to make up either for 
the entire absence of rain, or for a local deficiency of rainfall. 

In the arid regions of the Western part of the United States irrigation 
must be depended upon entirely for the production of crops; in the middle 
part of the United States, or where rainfall is of paradoxical occurrence, 
or too much at one time or not enough at another, both irrigation and 
drainage form valuable auxiliaries to secure maximum results on the farm, 
in the orchard and garden. 

In considering the vast importance of moisture to plant growth, it must 
be remembered that seeds absorb a very large amount of water, even before 
germination can begin; that the growth of the young plants, while still 
dependent upon the seed, involves the employment of a constant supply 
of water in order that the transference of nutrients from the stores in 
the seed to the newly developed parts, may proceed without interruption; 
that soils which do not contain more than 10 per cent of water will yield 
none of it to the plant, and that when such low percentages of water are 
approached there is a constant menace to the very life of the plant or the 
fruits. No rewards can be expected under such unfavorable condition 
to plant life. 

It must also be remembered that all fruit or vegetable products when 
in a growing state, contain an immense proportion of water, as much as 
even 90 per cent. From all this it will be readily understood that artificial 
supplies of water are needed for vegetation in any arid or semi-arid coun- 
try, and wherever the annual average rainfall is less than 20 inches, irri- 
gation must be established and maintained. 

The subject of irrigation to this country is now more important than 
ever before, as the tide of immigration trends its way westward to the arid 
regions, attracted by the rich alluvial soils and cheaper land. Ways and 
means must be explored to render those regions habitable and of promise 
to these pioneers. If all the snow and rainfall in the entire Untied States 
would be by Nature equally distributed all over the United States, there 
would be little need of employing irrigation in any part, but cyclonic dis- 
turbances, hurricanes, sudden changes from heat to cold in the atmosphere, 
cause at times heavy rainfall in some parts, at the expense of another part, 
and to remedy this unequal distribution artificial means must be em- 

14 



206 Irrigation. 

ployed to balance the account. In place of the rivers emptying their pre- 
cious fluid needed for agriculture into the boundless sea the current must 
be curbed by dams, canals and reservoirs, to prevent inundation and dis- 
astrous floods in certain parts and stored for future use. The steps of 
the national government recommending interstate waterways are highly 
commendable as these waterways will not only provide cheap transporta- 
tion of products, but will prevent floods and serve for irrigation as well. 

WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION. 

First — Natural streams, springs or lakes. 

Second — Surface or artesian wells. 

Third — Storage of storm waters. 

Primitive or natural irrigation is derived from a stream, ditch or canal 
running alongside of the valleys of the stream at a less grade than the 
stream itself. The greater the fall of the stream or valley, the more thor- 
ough can irrigation be instituted and employed. 

In the Western section of the United States artesian wells are the im- 
portant course of water for irrigation, because streams are more scarce and 
unreliable for a permanent supply. 

"Wlien artesian wells do not flow to a suSicient elevation to distribute over 
the growing crops, steam pumps, engines, windmills or horsepower must 
be employed to elevate the water to a si^fficient height to flow into tanks 
or reservoirs from where in turn it may be applied to the crops. 

WELL SINKING. 

Wells from a few feet to a hundred feet arr- generally sunk by means of 
pick and shovel. In drilling wells at a greater depth a derrick, combined 
with a boiler, engine, drills and accessories are required. Derricks are 
generally twenty feet square at the bottom and about seventy-five feet high. 

There are several systems of artesian well boring, such as the Pittman 
and "walking beam" and the rotary system, which have almost superseded 
the old style of boring at this date. 

ARTESIAN WELLS. 

The presence of artesian wells and water supply in any region depends 
upon the existence beneath that region of a tilted porous layer, inclosed be- 
tween two impervious beds. 

Artesian wells in all parts of the country yield a supply of water for 
domestic use, which in many instances is much purer than surface water. 
In the arid regions of the West, they also serve the purpose of supplying 
water for irrigation purposes, thus rendering fertile the soil of manv dis- 
tricts heretofore non-productive. 



Irrigation. 207 

The deepest artesian wells in the United States are at St. Louis Mo., 
3,843.5 feet; Columbus, Ohio, 2,775 1-3 feet; ;Louisville, Ky., 2,086 feet; 
Pittsburg, Pa., 4,625 feet; Wheeling, W. Va., 4,500 feet, and Galveston, 
Texas, 3,071 feet. 

The temperature of the water from artesian wells is commonly about 
50 degrees, but varies according to depth of wells. 

The depth of artesian wells in the arid West is from 300 to 1,500 feet, 
and rarely exceed that depth. All artesian wells diminish in flow, due 
either to partial filling of the tube or to a reduction of pressure, caused by 
too many, wells being bored into the same strata or basin. 

Artesian water impregnated with strong minerals, as salts, saline, alkali 
and ore beds, are sometimes found to be unfit for irrigation and all water 
from artesian wells should be analyzed before used as drinking water for 
man or beast or irrigation purpose. 

Complete statistics, concerning the depth, cost, discharge and other fea- 
tures cf 2,971 of such wells, fairly distributed throughout the various 
states and counties from which they are reported, have been obtained from 
the owners, and from the averages derived from such statistics, the num- 
ber of artesian wells used for the purposes of irrigation is computed at 
3,930; the average depth per well, 210.41 feet; the average cost per well, 
$245.58; the total discharge of water per minute, 440,719.71 gallons, or 
54.43 gallons per well per minute; the average area irrigated per well, 
13.21 acres, and the average cost of water per acre irrigated, 18.55. Over 
one-half of these wells are in the State of California. Utah stands second 
in the num.ber of artesian wells used for irrigation purposes and Colorado 
in the area of land thus irrigated. 

WINDMILLS. 

The date when windmills were first erected is unknown, but they were 
certainly known in Europe as early as the Twelfth century. While there 
are many types of old and antiquated windmills still in use in the old 
countries, American windmills generally have the sails or wings in an 
annulus or disk. The American windmill presents a larger surface for 
a given length of sail, and the construction is also much lighter. To turn 
the mill face to the wind a simple large rudder or tail is used. The cost 
of windmills varies according to size and material; also whether or not it 
include; the cost of the tower. For an acre or one and one-half acres of 
truck garden, and where the water is less than forty feet from the surface, 
a suitable windmill tower, tank pump and pipes may be erected for about 
$200.00. 



208 Irrigation. 

The horsepower derived from an American windmill in eight hours per 
day is as follows : , 



Diameter of Wheel in 
Feet. 


Velocity of Wind in 
per Hour. 


Miles 


Horsepower 


Derlvec 


8 1/2 feet 


IG miles 




0.04 


horsepower 


10 




16 






0.12 






12 




16 






0.21 






14 




16 






0.28 






IG 




16 






0.41 






18 




16 






0.61 






20 




16 






0.78 






25 




16 






1.34 







PUMPS. 

The different kinds of pumps, without regard to their motive power, may 
be classified as follows: 

First — Bucket lifts, or water elevators, by means of which a balance 
pole, or sweep, a, windlass or a wheel lowers, raises or empties one or more 
buckets or other receptacle. 

Second — Displacement pump, acting on the principle that two bodies 
cannot occupy the same place at the same time. 

Third — Impellers, which by their own continuous motion in the water 
to be moved, impart some of their velocity to water with which they come 
in contact. 

Fourth — Impulse pumps, which the force of a suddenly arrested large 
column of water, to lift a smaller column to a greater elevation than the 
original source. 

THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. 

The centrifugal pump is probably at this date the most economical pump 
used. 

The pump consists essentially of a shell containing a revolving runner 
or piston. Water is drawn in through an opening in the center of this shell 
and is by the runner given a centrifugal motion, which drives it out 
through the discharge pipe on the periphery of the pump shell. 

It has no valves and is not affected by sand, mud or grit, and will pass 
large bodies without injury. 

The discharge is continuous and steady. Working with a rotary motion, 
perfectly balanced, and with no reciprocating parts, there is no vibration 
and the pump therefore does not require an expensive foundation. 

The weight and floor space occupied, for the large amount of water de- 



Irrigation. ' -'^^ 

livered, are very small in comparison with other types of pumps, and the 
pump is consequently also very inexpensive in comparison. 

It is very economical in operation; whether belt driven or by engine 
directly connected it will deliver the same quantity of water under same 
conditions as the ordinary reciprocating steam pump, with less than half the 
expenditure in fuel. 

Th efficiency of the pump varies with the size, the type of pump,, the 
amount of water delivered, the elevation, and largely by the design. Large 
sizes will, if carefully designed and built, show an efficiency of 85 per cent, 
not including friction in driving engine or in pipes. The average efficiency 
of the pump with from six to twenty-inch discharge is 60 to 65 per cent, 
and for smaller sizes 40 to 50 per cent. 

The centrifugal pump is very flexible as regards capacity; a few revolu- 
tions faster or slower will greatly increase or diminish the amount of water 
delivered, but the highest efficiency is obtained when flow of water through 
discharge opening is from eight to twelve feet per second, according to 
size of pump. When best economical performance is desired, all details as 
to size of pump, size of suction and delivery pipes, and placing of pump, . 
must be carefully considered. 

The efficiency of a centrifugal pump may be computed as follows : 

A No. 1- centrifugal pump will irrigate ten acres of land running forty 
days of ten hours each, and if lifting the water twenty feet will require 
a two horsepower engine. 

No. 2 pump will supply twenty acres, requiring three horsepower. 

No. 3 pump, forty acres, with six horsepower engine. 

No. 4 pump, eighty acres, with ten horsepower engine. 

No. 6 pump, 160 acres, with twenty horsepower engine. 

No. 8 pump, 320 acres, with forty horsepower engine. 

The prices of these pumps vary from $50.00 to $300.00. 

ACRES IRRIGATED BY VARYING QUANTITIES OF WATER. 

Showing the number of acres irrigated in one, ten and twenty-four 
hours, pumping various quantities, and irrigating various depths : 



210 



Irrigation. 



< 



O 

CD 

W 



I— I 
CD 



o 

> 

fcJO 

'o- 
S 

3 





n: 




H 


^ 


Q 


:z; 


CM 


C/l 

:3 


<i 


G 


o 


D 


rt 


Ui 


a 


O 


> 


o 


1— • 


W3 


^ 


c 




>^ 


'd 


boo 


ffi 


(U 


Uh 


<: 






> 


*u 


na 




u 


n 


>- 


1— 1 


c« 


CQ 


c« 


^ 




(U 


c« 


Q 


1-4 


^OJ 


W 


< 


4-1 




o 


c5 

3 


O 


(U 


a 



S 

12; 

u 

4.J 

c 
o 

CO 





flg- 


CO 


CO 


CO 


t^ 


OC' 


CO 


M 


CO 




1— 1 <p 


lO 


t> 


00 


00 


00 


o 


CO 


t^ 


(B 


cdP 












1— 1 




T-H 






















^- 


CO 


t^ 


o 


-* 


CD 


t^ 


05 


CM 


o 




«: 


CO 


o 


o 


o 


C^l 


IC 


,_( 




LCQ 






I— 1 


1—1 


1—1 


T— ( 




C-1 


-• Oh 


05 


C35 


lO 


1—1 


(N 


05 


05 


IC 






















C 




t^ 


o 


(M 


CO 


CO 


iC 


05 


o 


^ 


Tl-Q 




T— 1 


I— ( 




1—1 






CM 






















• P-i 

c i7 


CO 


lO 


t^ 


Tfl 


CD 


C-] 


iC 


CO 


bc 


(— t 0) 


o 


^ 


CO 


t^ 


t^ 


1—1 


CO 


>o 


!h 


CO — 




y-^ 


1—1 


1— 1 


1—1 


CM 


CM 


CO 


;-< 




















HH 




















OJ 




CT> 


CO 


o 


(M 


lO 


CO 


t^ 


o 






lO 


1—1 


lO 


CO 


CO 


r— 1 


05 


CO 


<1 


<?»P 


1—1 


(N 


C^) 


CM 


(M 


CO 


CO 


lO 


6^ 


CO 


t^ 


o 


-* 


o 


CO 


iC 


o 




1— 1 (B 


,_l 


CO 


o 


(M 


CO 


CO 


as 


CD 


1 


^O 


CO 


"^l 


lO 


iC 


lO 


CO 


t- 


o 

1—1 






(M 


o 


'S* 


CD 


t^ 


■* 


lO 


CO 




^H QJ 


C-) 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


^ 


iC 


l-^ 


<ti 


«2Q 




































P 


cg^ 


CO 


CO 


1— 1 


CO 


■*! 


CO 


CO 


CO 


o 


1— 1 <» 


(M 


CO 


rf 


-+ 


■* 


lO 


CO 


00 


w 

o 


.cP 


















_• &• 


CO 


\a> 


c-^ 


'f 


lO 


CD 


C<l 


o 






















^ 


(—1 <u 


CO 


^ 


lO 


in 


lO 


CD 


00 


1—1 




TfP 
















1— ( 




















be 


-* o, 

1— 1 dj 


-* 

't 


o 

CO 


05 
CD 




CO 


00 

00 


o 

1—1 




to 


co« 














t-H 


1— ( 


^* '^^ 


CD 


1—1 


^ 


Ol 


o 


CM 


IC 


1— 1 




t— 1 <D 


CO 


05 


o 


o 


,_, 


CO 


CD 


CM 


<5 


mQ 






1—1 


1— ( 


1—1 


1— 1 


1—1 


CM 


rn' O, 


c^ 


(M 


00 


00 


1—1 


lO 


1—1 


CM 




(— 1 OJ 


CO 


oo 


o 


,_l 


M 


CO 


CO 


rt< 




r-<P 




1-H 


(N 


<M 


CM 


CM 


CO 


Tj< 




1 c=-S^ 


(M 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


TjH 


lO 


t^ 




h- 1 ^ 




















coP 


















c 


(—1 (D 


(M 


CO 


'^ 


•«*' 


■* 


m 


CO 


<Ji 


m 




















lop 


















o 




























































O 




CO 


■* 


lO 


IC 


\a 


CO 


00 


1—1 


; ^ 
















1-1 


•" 


Tfp 






































-• &■ 


•* 


CO 


t^ 


t^ 


1> 


05 


l-( 


■* 


cS 




















bD 


1—1 QJ 














,_4 


1— ( 


lh 


coP 


















^ 








































eg- 

1— ( £ 


CO 


05 


o 


I— 1 

1—1 


1-H 

I— ( 


CO 

1—1 


CO 

1—1 


CM 

c<i 


o 


(mP 


















«^ 




















d% 


CO 


00 


^ 


(M 


C<1 


CO 


CO 


■* 




HH S 


I— 1 


1—1 


(M 


(M 


CM 


CM 


CO 


■* 




.-iP 


















9:)TiuiXM -i^cl 


o 

o 




■* 
•* 


00 

00 


o 
o 


o 
o 


o 
o 


^ 


pedttir 


IJ SUOlJ'Br) 


CO 


00 


05 


05 


o 


CM 

T-H 


1—1 


§ 



A Cheap Driven Well. 311 

A CHEAP DRIVEN WELL. 

Suitable for tlie Coast country and Western Texas. 

In cases where the water is found in quicksand or fine sand we have 
used a much cheaper, and, we think, much better arrangement for obtain- 
ing water. We first sink (after digging to the water) a casing, say twenty 
inches in diameter ; pump out the sand from the inside, sink this to a depth 
of say, fifteen feet below the water ; then for a well point we use common 
galvanized iron, No. 20, say six, eight or ten inches in diameter perforat- 
ing the bottom, say for ten feet with one-eight inch holes. This point is 
set in the center of the casing; submerge the perforations about five feet; 
then we fill the space between casing and pipe with fine gravel, withdraw- 
ing the casing as we fill. These wells will yield from 500 to 1,000 gallons 
of water per minute each, and can be put down for less than $40 each, in- 
cluding cost of point. We then connect together enough of these points 
or wells to supply our pump. 

Thus it will be seen that it is not only feasible but practicable to pump 
water for irrigation; and that this can also be done at a less cost than 
the average New York or New England farmer expends annually per 
acre for phosphates. 

RESERVOIRS. 

Where small pump and power is used it is necessary to store the water 
in reservoirs, but where a No. 3 pump or larger is used, ,we would not 
advise the use of the reservoir, but would arrange to do our pumping direct 
to ditches, and thus save the cost of reservoir and the cost of pumping the 
water which is lost by evaporation and seepage from the reservoir. Of 
course, where they are using windmills and pumps of small capacities, it 
becomes necessary to have a storage reservoir, but we can see no economy 
in using a reservoir where pumps of larger capacities are used. 

In many instances it would be cheaper to put down a series of wells, 
owing to the fact that the land is uneven or it is not practical to carry it 
too far in ditches, and in this case, as is being done by a number of suc- 
cessful irrigators, several wells are put down at different points. A porta- 
ble engine is used and the pump erected on skids so that it can be quickly 
detached and moved from place to place, thus one outfit being made to 
serve several wells. 

APPLICATION OF THE WATER TO GROWING CROPS. 

The most simple and most economical way to apply water to growing 
crops is by furrow irrigation. A main ditch or small canal is filled with 



312 When to Irrigate. 

water, and this ditch is connected with the head of every, furrow. The 
surface of the entire land is never flooded, but the water is confined to 
the furrows and percolates laterally into the soil. 

WHEN TO IRRIGATE. 

In order to determine just when crops need water and when to apply 
it so that they will not suffer from drought, nor be injured by too fre- 
quent or too generous application, requires a knowledge and experience 
that can be gained only by practice and a close observation of various crops 
under irrigation. It is the experience of many practical irrigators that if 
an unlimited supply of water is available crops more ferquently suffer 
from overirrigation than from drougth. It is difficult to determine when 
the development of the crop is first arrested on account of a lack of moisture 
in the soil. Some experimenters maintain that this point can be more 
definitely decided by an examination of the soil than bj the appearance 
of the plant, as the latter shows evidence of the check in its growth some 
days after it has occurred. Usually it is then, too late to prevent serious 
loss, as the crop rarely recovers from such treatment, and seldom reaches 
the development it would have attained if it had been irrigated at the 
proper time. 

Plants will usually indicate by a change in color or by their general 
appearance whether they need water or when they have been over-irri- 
gated. Most field crops turn to a darker green when in need of water, 
and the leaves and stems show a tendency to droop or curl. The lower 
leaves assume a pale yellow. A crisp or dead appearance in the lower 
leaves is one of the best indications that a plant needs water. Grain which 
has suffered from drought may mature, but the straw will be small and 
short and the kernels will be shrunken and inferior in quality. Alfalfa 
and similar crops have the appearance of cured hay. Where field crops 
are over-irrigated the color of the foliagee becomes a yellowish green and 
the plants have a sickly appearance. These indications vary with the 
quality of the soil, so that it is impossible to lay down fixed rules to gov- 
ern the number or frequency of irrigations. Only close observation for 
a number of years on the same farm will enable a person to tell by the 
appearance of the plants whether they need water or not. 

The amount of moisture in the soil may be determined with sufficient 
accuracy for the needs of the plant by examining a' sample taken a few 
inches from the surface of the ground. If it clings together when molded 
in a ball and shows the print of the fingers, there is moisture enough pres- 
ent. If the earth falls apart when the hand is opened, irrigation is needed. 



Orchard Irrigation. 213 

As stated above, this point is passed some daj's before the plant shows 
indications of suffering. 

Irrigation at night or cloudy weather is preferable to irrigation done 
during the day in bright sunshine. 

After the fields, orchards or gardens are thoroughly watered, and as 
soon as the surface becomes dry, cultivators or small harrows should be 
passed over the ground or through the furrows, to avoid the forminng of 
a hard crust and to provide a dust mulch to retain the moisture. 



OECHAED lEEIGATION. 

It was not until recent years that the deciduous fruit growers of the 
northern and central parts of the State discovered the importance of em- 
ploying irrigation to make a better grade of friut. Sections that were 
producing immense quantities of tine fruit could have improved their 
product by irrigation, but they were doing well enough. They thought that 
irrigation would lower the quality of the fruit. This idea, perhaps, grew 
out of the results obtained by those who had tried irrigation without giving 
the subject proper thought and attention. It was found that irrigated 
fruit was soft and with poor flavor. 

The trouble was, irrigation was done at the wrong time. Nevertheless, 
this objection stayed with the subject for many years, and it is still counted 
against irrigation by some growers. At the same time, fruit grown in 
damp soil, near the rivers, brings the most money and has the finest qual- 
ity. The difference is: In the first case the task is engineered by a man, 
and in some cases irregularly done. 

In the latter case. Nature did the work regularly and evenly. Peach 
orchards in such situations in the Sacramento valley have in recent years 
brought over $1,000 per acre yearly. This is under natural irrigation. 
Artifiicial irrigation on good soil can be made to nearly, if not actually, 
equal it. The point to keep in mind is that a tree will do its best when 
supplied Avith a certain amount of water. This is a fact beyond dispute. 

IRRIGATE RIGHT. 

It does make a certain amount of difference whether the trees get it 
naturally or artifically, but the water can be supplied the latter way so as 
to nearly imitate the natural supply. It should make little difference 
if it is so done, and such is a fact. That is a lengthy argument to present 
simple facts, but there has always been more or less argument against 
irrisjating deciduous fruits. 



814 When to Irrigate. 

The application of water in furrows is the hest method for most, if not 
all, such fruits. The roots of this class of fruit trees run deeper than 
those of citrus trees, and consequently they will not need irrigation so 
often, but they will require a longer run of water to give the best results. 

WHEN TO IRRIGATE. 

Deciduous fruits that are irrigated near to the time of ripening are apt 
to be too watery and of poor flavor. It is this feature that has brought 
objections to irrigation. This feature will always have to be settled by 
the individual grower, as soils differ so that no set rule can be given. Men 
who have given attention to the detail of this part of fruit growing 
claim that with irrigation they improve the quality and increase the 
quantiy. 

The general rule to follow is to keep the soil well saturated with moisture 
while the fruit is maturing and making size, but before the sugar form- 
ing or ripening period commences withhold the water, or stop irrigation 
long enough before this period to allow the surplus water to become ex- 
hausted. This is what takes place in the river bottom soils that: are nat- 
urally sub-irrigated. 

As the season advances the water table lowers and through the absorp- 
tion of the water by the roots and by evaporation. The amount of water 
in the soil gradually becomes less. With this comes the uniformity of 
conditions that produce even and harmonious results that tell so strik- 
ingly on all kinds of vegetation, fruit trees and orange trees especially. 

IRRIGATION POINTERS. 

Too much water on or near the surface will injure fruit trees. Some 
orchards where water is plentiful are being ruined by too much of it, 
even in the mountains, where natural drainage is usually all that could 
be desired. The trees are sickly and the fruit is of little value. 

The things to know are when to irrigate and how much. Just enough 
at the right times insures the best possibile result, but some growers seem 
to be unable to learn this. 

When hardpan is near the surface care must be taken or the tree or 
vine is very likely to be injured if much water is applied in warm 
weather. 

If too much water is used the fruit will drop and the trees show a si(jkly 
appearance in the middle of the spring. Moderate irrigation will not 
do this. 

Where water is allowed to stand or there is insufficient drainage the 
leaves turn yellow, and if the trees are not looked to they are apt to die. 



Value of an Irr\(jnle dAcrc in Colorado. 215 

Deciduous fruit trees are injured by too much water and by allowing 
it to run around the body of the tree. 

Fruit trees are often injured by too much irrigation — in fact, many are 
killed by it. It also spoils the fruit. 

PROFITS OF IRRIGATION. 

The profits from irrigation or growing crops are so varied, according to 
the locality and nature of the crops, that actual experience must first be 
harvested before that question can be effectually settled. We may with 
justice say that irrigation in the arid regions is all profit, because with- 
out irrigation there would not be any crop. Indeed, the same might 
be true in the semi-arid regions, for all crops without any exceptions need 
either a rain or irrigation at the right period. Any farmer has observed 
that if corn is blessed with a good soaking rain about the time it tassels 
out the corn crop is as good as made in the South. To apply, then, irri- 
gation at this period to the corn would naturally develop the same result. 
Gardeners no doubt have noticed that when beans are in bloom and re- 
ceive then a copious rain, the first picking of beans is assured, and what 
is true of beans is true of all other garden vegetables. There are distinct 
periods when plant life must have the necessary moisture to produce fruits, 
and this pronounced period is invariable about blooming time. 

The profits from irrigation are not so much a factor as the assurance 
and the certainty that a crop may be made with the assistance of irrigation 
devices, even in the semi-arid regions, or any part of the South. 

In Colorado, where irrigation is more expensive than any part of the 
Southern States on account of lack of humidity in the atmosphere and 
scarcity of water, one of our contributors writes as follows, and these 
figures may be accepted as very conservative: 



THE INTRINSIC VALUE OF AN lEIRIGATED ACRE IN 

COLORADO. 

The real value of an acre of land is fixed by the annual net profit it can 
be made to yield. In Colorado a property owner is not satisfied with less 
than ten per cent annual interest upon his investment. It is upon this 
basis that we have always calculated estimates in figuring on the earning 
capacity of irrigated land. Suppose that a 160-acre well established farm 
contains in one year fifty acres of potatoes, fifteen acres of beets, sixty 
acres of wheat and thirty of alfalfa. The average yield of potatoes is 
100 sacks or 11,000 pounds to the acre; the average market price is not 



216 Value of an Irrigated Acre in Colorado. 



\ 



less than 50c per cwt., 'or $55 an acre; the expense of cultivation is $20 
an acre. This leaves a net profit of $35 an acre, or $1,750 for the entire 
crop of fifty acres. 

The average yield of beets is fifteen tons and at the market price, $5.00 
a ton, the gross return is $75. The expense of cultivation is $40, wliich 
leaves a net profit of $35 or $525 for the crop of fifteen acres. The aver- 
age yield of wheat is thirty-five bushels or 2,100 pounds to the acre, vi^hich 
at the average market price of $1.00 per cwt. returns $21. The expense 
of cultivation is $5.00, leaving a net profit of $16, or $960 for the crop of 
sixty acres, when the season is all right. The average yield of alfalfa is 
four tons from a good stand, which at the market price of $1.00 a ton 
gives $16 an acre; the expense is $3.00, leaving a net profit of $13, or 
$390 for the crop of thirty acres. While the cash profit on alfalfa is com- 
paratively small the crop is invaluable as a fertilizer. 

By adding these profits we find that such a farm would net above all 
expenses a grand total of $3,625. This sum divided by 160 gves $22.65 
as the net acre profit. This profit then becomes the interest upon its real 
value. Placing that at ten per cent per annum and multiplying by ten, 
it becomes evident that such a farm is worth to its owner $226.50 an acre. 
These estimates are extremely conservative and are realized every year by 
any number of representative farmers who know how to plow, sow, till 
and reap. Ordinary estimates range from $20 to $40. No estimate on 
irrigated land is lower than $20, and consequently such a farm is worth 
only $200 to the acre. 

However, many farms all over the country have given yields far above 
these figured estimates. For instance, a 100-acre farm near Eaton netted 
$9,967, or $62 an acre; and a 130-acre farm yielded $8,000, or $61.50 an 
acre. Of course there are some farms in the same neighborhood that do 
not yield a yearly profit of $5, but it is the fault of the farmer and not 
of the land. The man who loiters along and lets things take care of them- 
selves is sadly fooled when it comes to running an irrigated farm. 

Lands on which peaches may be grown year after year are extremely 
scarce in the world. The Elberta is often as fitful as a pretty maid — the only 
creation that has ever been deemed equal in comparison with it. Else- 
where a peach year comes but now and then. In the Colorado peach belt, 
however, every year is a peach of a one and every man who is in the busi- 
ness can make all kinds of money by following it carefully. A prominent 
peach grower in Mesa county kept accurate account of expenditures and 
receipts on his large orchard for a term of five years. He received gross 
for his peach crops from $700 to $850 an acre a year, and his net profits 



Drainage. 217 

averaged a little more than $400 per acre per annum for the entire term. 
Such profits are not equaled in the bankinti^ business. 

DRAINAGE. 

Drainage, next to irrigation, is the most important subject confronting 
the fruit and vegetable growers of the South, leaving out the arid regions 
of West Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado, where irrigation is 
absolutely necessary to produce crops. In the semi-arid region of the South, 
if we had our choice between irrigation and drainage, we would prefer drain- 
age to irrigation in the flat countries or coast countries of Louisiana and 
Texas. There are more crops lost by lack of drainage than by lack of 
irrigation during drouths. By constant cultivation and providing a 
dust mulch to retain the moisture a fair crop may be made by what is 
termed dry farming, but in floods, overflows during the heated period of 
the summer months the entire crop is lost either in the orchard or garden 
or most certainly diminished by excessive water on the land. It is for- 
tunate that both irrigation and drainage may be secured by the same sys- 
tem; the ditches or canals instituted for irrigation during drought may 
be made useful during floods in carrying off the surplus water; also tile 
draining may be employed for the same purpose. 

Drainage permits of earlier crops and a larger proportion of air, warmth 
and moisture in the soil. Drainage benefits the land also by affording a 
ready outlet for all excess of water, thereby preventing stagnation and 
removing a source of evil. The bad effects produced by an excess of 
water all of which are, of course, removed by draining — may be enumerated 
at length. One evil produced is the consequent diminution in the quan- 
tity of air within it, which, air is of the greatest consequence, not only in 
promoting the chemical changes requisite for the preparation of food for 
plants, but likewise to the roots themselves. Excess of water injures the 
soil by diminishing its temperature in summer and increasing it in winter 
— a transportation of nature most hurtful to perenials, because the vigor 
of a plant in spring depends greatly upon the lowness of temperature to 
which it has been subjected during winter (within certain limits), as the 
difference of temperature between the winter and spring is the exciting 
cause of the ascent of the sap. The presence of a larger quantity of water 
in the soil also alters the result by putrefaction, by which some subctences 
are formed which are useless in plants. An increase in the proportion 
of moisture in soils has a powerful effect upon its saline constituents, by 
which many changes are produced diametrically opposite to those that 
take place in soil where the water is much less in quantity ; and in this way 



218 Drainage. 

the good effects of many valuable constituents are greatly diminished, as, 
for instance, the action of carbonic acid upon lime and green materials, 
and gypsum upon carbonate of ammonia. 

The proportion of plant food available in the soil, for the use of crops, 
is largely influenced by draining and the amount of surplus water in the 
soil. The directions of the currents which occur in wet soils are entirely 
altered by drainage; in undrained soil the currents are altogether from 
below upward — being produced by the force of evaporation at the sur- 
face — consequently the spongholes of the plants are supplied with unde- 
sirable subsoil water; but Avhen the land is drained the currents are from 
the surface to the drains, and the roots are, consequently, supplied with 
fresh aerated water. Drainage increases the absorption of carbonic acid, 
also the atmospheric supply of food, and creates a tendency in the plant 
to produce leaves possessing a different structure from those which the 
same plant produces in dry seasons. Another important point is that on 
land that has been drained the system of subsoiling can be adopted with 
ten-fold advantage, which is an object of the highest importance, for there 
is no doubt that the use of the subsoil plow has been satisfactory on almost 
all soils, having been found as valuable on light lands with retentive bot- 
toms as upon those of a more compact and stiff er surface, rendering soils 
dryer in wet weather and more moist in dry weather. That a tenacious 
and impervious subsoil must be relieved from the water collected and 
retained on its surface before the earth can be fitted for the growth of 
vegetable matter has been most clearly and satisfactirily ascertained. The 
best mode of. effecting this object may be a question, but it is probable 
that under-draining with tiles will be found the most economical method. 
A cold soil is never capable of producing profitable crops. An excess 
of water in the soil, in addtion to its injury to the soil, also produces a 
constant dampness of the atmosphere, which has been shown to be in- 
jurious to plants, especially by diminishing evaporation, thus rendering 
the process of assimilation slower, and in some sectons and on certain 
farms malaria results; in fact, there is every reason to believe that sur- 
face water,| which is for the most part stagnant, is by far the most injurious 
because in this manner the currents produced during the heat of summer — 
namely, the period at which vegetation should be the most active — will of 
necessity be entirely from below upward, being produced by the evapora- 
tion of the water upon the surface of thu soil, the consequence being that 
the roots of the plants, instead of being supplied with water charged with 
valuable plant foods, will l)e suprlied witli water wliirh has existed so long 
in the soil that it will have lost these vegetable ingredients, and will, more- 



Tile Draining. 219 

over, be charged with excrementitious matters. No system of drainage 
can diminish the quantity of water which a soil receives; it can only affect 
the quantity which it retains and prevent stagnation by allowing it 
to escape freely that continual currents are produced so long as any excess 
of water remains. Drainage will not fail to pay a percentage upon the 
cost far greater than many other investments, as that land will oftentimes 
require no manuring for years, the herbage, too, being of a peculiar 
different species from that hitherto produced, as well as being far more 
nutritrious. 



TILE DEAINING. 

Tile draining is the most perfect system of draining — a little more 
costly at the beginning, but of no expense or labor after the tiles have 
once been properly laid. 

DRAINAGE ASSISTS PULVERIZATION. 

It is manifest that a wet soil can never be pulverized. Plowing clayey, 
or even loamy soil when wet tends rather to press it together and render 
it less pervious to air and water. The first effect of underdraining is 
to dry the surface soil, and to draw out all the water that will run out 
of it, so that in early spring or in autumn it may be worked with the 
plow as advantageously as undrained lands in midsummer. In this 

DRAINAGE LENGTHENS THE SEASON 

for labor and vegetation. When a wet winter is succeeded, as it often is, 
by a torrid summer, without the ceremony of an intervening spring, 
farmer have need of all their energy to get their seed seasonably into the 
ground. The earth is saturated with water, and the land designed for 
cultivation frequent cannot be plowed until late in the spring, and all the 
processes are, necessarily, hurried and imperfect. We know, too, that 
in such ground the surface becomes hard and bakes quickly, so that it 
cannot be worked properly. This is not the case with drained land. 
Drainage 

PREVENTS SURFACE WASHING. 

All land which is not level, and is not in grass, is liable to great loss 
by heavy rains. If the land is already filled with water, or has not suf- 
ficient drainage, the rain cannot pass directly downward, but runs away 
upon the surface, carrying with it much of the soil, and washing out what 
remain of the valuable elements of fertility which have been applied 



220 Drained Land is Light to Work. 

How many unsightly hills testify to this fact? If the land is properly 
drained the water falling from the clouds is at once absorbed and passes 
downward, saturating the soil in its descent, and carrying the soluble 
substances with it to the roots, and the surplus water runs away in the 
artificial channels provided by the drainage process. So great is the 
absorbent power of drained lands that, after a protracted drought, all 
the water of a heavy shower will be drunk up by the soil, so that in a 
day or two none will find its way to the drain, nor will it run upon the 
surface. 

There are no open ditches on tiled land, and thus the unsightly ap- 
pearance so common to many of our farms is avoided, and the ground 
thus occupied is used to the owner's profit and advantage. It is useless 
to more than refer to this matter, for the advantage of under drains over 
the usual ditch is too evident to warrant discussion. By using tile drains, 
though the drained land may be laid perfectly flat, we secure control of 
the whole field to divide and cultivate according to convenience, and mak- 
ing it of uniform texture and temperature. 

DRAINED LAND IS LIGHTER TO WORK. 

It is difficult to find one day in the year when a wet piece of land is 
in suitable condition to plow. Usually such tracts are unequal, some spots 
being wetter than others, because the water settles in the low places*. In 
such fields the farmer drives his teams knee deep into the soft mud, and 
finds a stream of water following him in the furrow, or he rises upon a 
knoll baked hard and sun-cracked ; and one-half of the surface, when fin- 
ished, is shining with the plastered mud, ready to dry into the consistency 
of bricks, while the other is already in hard, dry lumps, like paving stones, 
and about as easily pulverized. This is hard work for the teams and 
men, hard in the plowing and hard through the whole rotation. The same 
field, well drained, is friable and porous, and uniform in texture. It may 
be well plowed and readily pulverized, if taken in hand and at any reason- 
able season. In this connection, attempts have been made to estimate 
the saving in the number of horses and men by drainage, and it is thought 
to be a reasonable calculation to fix it at one in four, or 25 per cent. It 
will probably strike any farmer as a fair estimate, that on land which 
needs drainage it will require four horses and four men to perform the 
same amount of cultivation that three men and three horses may per- 
form on the same land well drained. 

Drained land is least injured by cattle in feeding. A hard upland is 
less injured by feeding than a low meadow, and the latter less in a dry 



Drainage Promotes Absorption. 221 

than a wet season. By drainage, the surface water is taken from the field. 
None can stand upon its surface for a day after the rain ceases. The soil 
is compact, and the hoofs of cattle make little impression upon it, and the 
second or third crop may be fed off with comparatively little damage. 
Weeds are easily destroyed on drained land, and thus is removed one of 
our greater evils. If a weed be dug or pulled up from land that is wet 
and sticky, it is likely to strike root and grow again, because earth adheres 
to its roots where a stroke of the hoe entirely separates the weeds iiii 
friable soil from the earth and they die at once. Again, there are many 
noxious weeds, such as wild grasses, which thrive only on wet land, and 
which are difficult to exteiminate, but which give no trouble after the land 
is liglitcned and sweetened by drainage. This alone will repay the entire- 
cost of draining on some farms. 

DRAINAGE PROMOTES ABSORPTION 

of fertilizing substances from the air and supplies air to the roots. Plants, 
if they do not breathe like animals, require for their life almost the same 
constant supply of air. All plants die in soils and water destitute of 
oxygen. Absence of air acts exactly in the same manner as an excess 
of caibonic acid. Stagnant water on a marshy soil excludes air. but a 
renewal of water has the power to warm a wet soil and to facilitate area- 
tion. Among the advantages therefore of thorough drainage is reckoned, 
by all, the circulation of air through the soil. No drop of water can run 
from tne soil into a drain without its being supplied with air, unless 
there is more water to supply it; so that drainage in this way, manifestly 
promotes th permeation of air through the soil, and thus drainage 

ADAPTS THE SOIL TO GERMINATION. 

When water is added to perfectly dry soil, it, of course, in the first in- 
stance, fills the interstitial canals, and from these enters the pores of 
each particle; and if the supply of water be not too great the canals 
speedily become empty, so that the whole of the fluid is taken up by the 
pores ; this to the healthy condition of the soil. If, however, the supply 
of water be too great, as is the case when a spring gains admission into 
the soil, or when the sinking of the fluid through the canals to a sufficient 
depth below the surface is prevented, it is clear that these also must get 
filled with water so soon as the pores have become saturated. This, then 
is the condition of undrained soil. Not only are these pores filled, but 
the interstitial canals are likewise full; and the consequence is that the 
whole process of the germination and growth of vegetable is materially 

15 



222 Affects Its Temperature. 

interfered with. The great effect of an excess of water is that it produces 
a corresponding diminution of the amount of air beneath the surface, 
which air is of the greatest possible consequence in the nutrition of plants ; 
in fact, if entirely excluded, germination could not take place, and the 
seed sown would of course either decay or lie dormant. The perfect con- 
dition of the soil through drainage 

AFFECTS ITS TEMPERATURE. 

For example, pot-grown plants may still further serve to show a bad 
effect of a surcharge of water in the soil. All plant growers are very care- 
ful in cold weather about watering their plants at night, knowing by ex- 
perience that the increased evaporation will too greatly reduce the tempera- 
ture, and thus check and stunt the plant. The case is the same in effect 
over large areas where the water is held in the soil below the surface. The 
temperature is kept many degrees below what it would be if good drain- 
age existed. Vegetation commences later in the spring, arrives at ma- 
turity later, and is coarser in texture on such soils. The market gardener, 
the fruit grower and the farmer cannot afford to raise crops on any but 
well drained lands. 

The excess of water in soil keeps down its temperature in various ways, 
and the sun has not the power to warm such soil, for several reasons, 
among which are : 1. The soil is rendered cold by evaporation. 2. Heat 
will not pass downward in water, so that it can never warm the under 
soil, except so far as it is conducted downward by some other medium 
than water itself, 3. Heat being propagated in water only by circula- 
tion, anything which obstructs circulation prevents the passage of heat. 
Water when in the soil in quantity, in passing into the state of vapor 
rapidly carries off the heat which the soil has obtained from the sun's 
rays. It also carries off heat by evaporation and radiation when present 
in excess and in a stagnant state; while, on the other hand, stagnant water 
conveys no heat downward, giving back its heat to the atmosphere only, 
for although the surface is warmer, the heated water being lighter, re- 
mains floating on the surface, while the colder portion continues to sink 
until the whole has been lowered in temperature to its maximum density, 
40 degrees. It is thus that soil overcharged with water is kept at a lower 
temperature than similar soil with natural or artificial drainage. When 
rain water can sink freely into soil to a depth of several feet, and then 
find ready exit by drainage, in such cases it carries down with it the heat 
which it has acquired from the atmosphere and sun-heated earth surface, 
and imparts it to the soil. This has been tested by numerous observa- 



Drainage Prevents Drovght. 223 

tions. The importance of the result cannot be well overrated, for although 
the temperature and other conditions of atmosphere, called climate, are 
beyond human control; this power of raising the temperature of all wet, 
and consequently cold, soils becomes tantamount in some of its results, 
to a power of improving the climate; there being good grounds for stat- 
ing that in numerous cases grain crops have ripened ten or twelve days 
sooner than they would have done, had not the land on which they grew 
been drained. Drainage 

IMPROVES THE QUALITY OF CROPS. 

In dry seasons we frequently hear the farmer boast of the quality of 
his products. His hay crop, he says, is light, but will "spend" much 
better than the crop of a wet season; his. potatoes are not large, but they 
are sound and mealy. Indeed, this topic need not be enlarged upon. 
Every farmer knows that his wheat and corn are heavier and more sound 
when grown upon land sufficiently drained. 

DRAINAGE PREVENTS DROUGHT, 

This proposition is somewhat startling at first view. Hov/ can drain- 
ing land make it more moist? One would as soon think of watering land 
to make it dry. A drought is the enemy we all dread. Somebody has a 
plan for producing rain by extensive artificial fires and another by ex- 
plosives in the air. A great objection to these arrangements is that they 
cannot limit their showers to particular land, and all the public may 
never be ready for a shower on the same day. If we can really protect 
land from drought by undermining it, everybody may at once engage in 
the work without offense to his neighbor. If a handful of rich soil, or 
almost any kind, be taken up after a heavy rain, we can squeeze it hard 
enough with the hand to press out drops of water. If a large quantity of 
the same soil should be taken up after it was so dry that not a drop of 
water could be pressed out by hand, and subjected to the pressure of 
machinery, we would force from it more water. Any boy who has watched 
the process of making cider with old-fashioned press, has seen the pomace, 
after it had once been pressed apparently dry and cut down, and the 
screw applied anew to the "cheese," give out quantities of juice. These 
facts illustrate first how much water may be hold in the soil by at- 
traction. They show, again, that more water may be held by a pulveiized 
soil than a compact one. This increased capacity to contain moisture by 
attraction is the greatest security against drought. 

After more rain falls than the ground can readily absorb, the excess 



224 Drainage Prevents Drought. 

settles into the drains and flows away, leaving the soil in a suitable con- 
dition for the roots of growing plants. But in dry time the air upon the 
surface is heated by the sun's rays that are absorbed by the top layer of 
the soil. This heated air expands and rises just as warm air rises from the 
heated stove. At the same time warm air enters the open ends of drain, 
passes along them and constantly ascends through the soil to take the place 
of the heated air rising from the surface. But all the soil below an inch 
or two of surface is cooler than the air that enters the pipes, and this 
being cooled, deposits its previously concealed vapor, so that, in fact, it 
moistens the ground. 

We can thus understand why under-draining not only carries off excess 
water, but also dampens the soil when it is dry. Stirring a dry soil with 
hoes or cultivators in hot weather brings hot moisture-laden air in con- 
tact with soil colder than itself, and it deposits moisture upon it. An- 
other important effect of such drains or air passages is that air passing 
through the soil oxidizes portions of the plant food in it, both mineral 
and organic, and thus increases the fertility. It also often destroys pois- 
onous substances in the soil like the prosalt of iron, which the access of 
air changes into the innocuous peroxide. 

Particularly does the foregoing apply to all clayey soil. There are 
occasionally stiff clayey soils, which are, in their natural state, imper- 
vious to water, or nearly so, and these are the very soils which without 
drainage are perfectly worthless. It would seem at first view that such 
soils could not, from their constitution, be susceptible of drainage, and 
were it not for a provision of Nature, which seems to specially aid our 
labors, such lands must be given over as hopeless. But all soils, and 
clays in particular, expand when wet and contract when dry. When drains 
are laid in clay the soil next to the tiles is deprived of its water, and. of 
course, rendered drier than the rest. This causes it to crack, and the 
cracks are found by observation to commence at the drains and extend 
further and further in almost straight lines, into the subsoil, forming 
minor drains or feeders, all leading to the tiles. These main fissures have 
numerous smaller ones diverging from them, so that the whole mass is 
divided and sub-divided into the smallest portions. The main fissures 
gradually enlarge as the dryness increases, and at the same time lengthen 
out, so that in a very dry season they may be traced the whole way be- 
tween the drains. In addition to the evils enumerated it is well known 
that wet land, if in grass, produces the coarser varieties and many 
sub-aquatic plants and mosses of no value for pasturage; its herbage 
is latq coming in the spring and fails early in the fall, and animals graz- 



Drainage Prevents Drought. 225 

ing on it are unduly liable to disease. When such land is used for cul- 
tivation operations are easily interrupted by rain and the compactness and 
toughness of the soil renders labor more arduous than is necessary on dry 
lands. With all the usual precautions, the best seed time is often missed, 
and this usually proves the prelude to a, scanty harvest. Even the break- 
ing of the subsoil and the deep tillage so beneficial in other circumstances, 
is generally injurious on such land, as it ,but increases its power of re- 
taining water. Doesn't every farmer know these to be facts? And yet, 
despite the testimony of the past and present, as well as the progressive 
spirit of late years in portions of our own and other countries, how true is 
it that underground drainage is ,alraost unknown among our farmers of 
the South. The want of success with so many is attributed to "accidents," 
whicU, when examined, are found to result from causes that thorough 
drainage would certainly remove. It would seem from the remark.: of 
those who till the earth that there never was a sea«on Just right, that rains 
had been sent down so plentifully and at such wrong seasons as to always 
blight our harvests. It is rare, it would appear, that we do not have "a 
most Remarkable" season, with respect to moisture especially. Our pota- 
toes, our corn, our cotton are rotted by the summer showers or cut off by 
a summer drought. No man admits that he lacked skill to cultivate his 
crop, and seldom does a farmer attribute his failure to the poverty of his 
soil. He has planted and cultivated in such a way that in a favorable 
season he would have reaped a fair reward for his toil; but, as has been 
claimed, the season unfortunately has been too wet or too dry. Still with 
full faith that farming will pay in the long run, our friend resolves to 
plant again, the same land in the same manner, hoping for the future, 
better luck that seldom comes. Too much cold water is at the bottom 
of most ,of these complaints of unpropitious seasons, as well as at the 
bottom of most of the soils, and the evils can only be removed, or at 
least lessened, by thorough drainage, by which as we trust we have shown, 
the stagnant water is removed to a proper depth, a free passage for rain 
water and air established from the surface to the level of the drain, thus 
speedily effecting most important changes in the condition of the soil, 
making it more friable and enabling plowing and other tillage operations 
to be more speedily performed ; moderate rains cease to arrest such opera- 
tions and heavy rains cause a much shorter interruption of such work. 
Deep tillage aids the drainage and is in every way beneficial, helping- to 
make earlier seed time and finer harvest, better crops and healthier live 
stock and is a part of all judiciously conducted drainage operations. In 



226 Distance and Depth of Drains. 

a word, we may estimate the profits of tile drainage at from 10 to 30 
per cent, and sometimes the profits considerably exceed these figures. 
For every dollar's worth of improvements we put on our farms we must 
make a corresponding improvement in our methods of farming, and thus 
proportionately increase our harvests. When, then, we make our farms 
dry and drive our fields to the full limit of their productive capacity, we 
shall realize and reap the full measure of the profits of tile drainage and 
of improved agriculture, 

DISTANCE AND DEPTII OF DRAINS. 

What should be considered the minmum depth to which soil should 
be drained to obtain the greatest benefit therefrom, has been, and still 
is, a subject of considerable controversy. From what has been stated in 
the previous pages of this article, the proper depth should be nearly de- 
termined by any one who gives the matter necessary attention. Still, a 
few more thoughts may not be out of place. 

Water runs steadily through sand or gravel. In such soils it easily 
seeks and finds its level. If it be drawn out at one point, it tends toward 
that point from all directions. In a free, open sand, you may draw all 
the water at one opening, almost as readily as from an open pond. 

Yet, even such lands require draining. A body of sandy soil frequently 
lies not only upon clay, but in a basin, so that if the sand were removed 
a pond would remain. In such a case a few deep drains rightly placed 
would be sufiicient. This however, is a case not often met with, though 
open, sandy soil upon clay is a common formation. 

Then there is the other extreme of compact clay, through which water 
seems scarcely to percolate at all. Yet it has water in it, that may prob- 
ably soak out by the same process by which it soaked in. Very few soils 
of even such as are called clay, are impervious to water, especially in 
the condition in which they are found in Nature, To render them im- 
pervious it is necessary to web and stir them up, or, as it is termed, puddle 
them. Any soil, so far as it has been weathered — that is, exposed to air, 
water and frost — is permeable to water to a greater or less degree; so that 
we may feel confident that the upper stratum of any soil, not constantly 
under water, will readily allow the water to pass through. And in con- 
sidering the drainage of stiff clays, we have seen that tlie most obstinate 
clays are "usually so affected by the operation of drainage that they 
crack and so open passages for the water to the drains. All gravels, 
black mud of swamps, and loamy soils of any kind, are readily drained. 

The relations of the depth and distance of drains should be more fully 
considered in treating of the depth of drains. The idea that depth will 



Distance and Depth of Drains. 237 

compensate for frequency in all cases seems now to be abandoned. Tt is 
conceded that clay soils, which readily absorb moisture, and yet are strongly 
retentive, cannot be drained with sufficient rapidity, or even thoroughness, 
by drains at any depth, unless they are also within certain distances. 

In a porous soil, as a general rule, the deeper the drain the farther it 
will draw. The tendency of water is to lie level in the soil; but capillary 
attraction and mechanical obstructions offer constant resistance to this 
tendency. The farther water has to pass in the soil, the longer time, other 
things being equal, will be required for the passage. Therefore, although 
a single deep drain might in ten days draw the water all down to its own 
level, yet it is quite evident that two drains might do the work in less time 
— possibly in five days. Yet, if we adopt the conclusion that four feet is 
the least allowable depth ; where an outfall can be found, there may be the 
question still, whether, in very open soils, a still greater depth may not be 
expedient, to be compensated by an increased distance. The sudden rising 
of water in many of our streams, with the attending overflow of rnuch of 
our best land, so liable to occur about planting time, required that our 
system of drainage should be efficient, not only to take off large quantities 
of water, but to take them off in a very short time. How rapidly water may 
be expected to pass off by drainage is not made clear by writers on this 
subject. Probably three-inch tile, at fifty feet distances will carry off 
with all desirable rapidity, any quantity of water that will ever fall, 
if the soil be such that the water can pass through it to the distance neces- 
sary to find the drains; but it is equally probable that, in a compact soil, 
fifty feet distance is quite too great for sufficiently rapid drainage, be- 
cause the water cannot get to the drains with sufficient rapidity. 

While we would not lay down an arbitrary arrangement for any farm, 
and while we would by no means advocate what has been called the grid- 
iron system of drain everywhere at equal depths and distances, yet 
some system is absolutely essential, in any operation that approaches to 
thorough drainage. 

The depth of, and distance between laterals, should be governed by 
the nature of the soil, whether clay, gravel or sand. If the main is six 
inches in diameter and laterals three inches in clay soil, let the laterals 
be thirty to forty feet apart. Laterals should enter the mains at an angle 
of from fifteen to twenty degrees, and thus avoid the obstructions liable 
to gather at the connection where a short bend is used. Six inches fall 
in each 100 feet is sufficient, if care is taken to have the greater fall at 
the lower end, or outlet, to prevent obstruction. The expense of draining 
is difficult to determine, for, naturally, it also depends on the soil and cir- 



238 Distance and Depth of Drains. 

cumstances. In ordinary cultivated fields a great deal of the work can 
be done with the plow, and the filling in, after carefully laying the tile, 
can be doue with scrapers. 

If it be only desired to cut off some particular springs, or to assist 
Nature in some ravine or basin, a deep drain here and there may be ex- 
pedient; but when any considerable surface is to be drained, there can be 
no good work without a connected plan of operations. Mains must be 
laid from the outfall, through the lowest parts; and into the mains the 
smaller ones must be conducted, upon such a system as to insure proper 
fall throughout, and that the whole field shall be embraced. 

Again a perfect plan of the complete work, accurately drawn on paper, 
should always be preserved for future reference. Now it is manifest 
tli;^t it is impossible to lay out a given field, with proper mains and ?niall 
drains, dividing the fall as equally as practicable between the different 
parts of an undulating field, preserving a system throughout by which, 
with the aid of a plan, any drain may at any time be traced, without mak- 
ing distances conform somewhat to the S3'slem of the whole. 

Jn conclusion as to distances, I would advise great caution on the oart 
of beginnners in laying out their drains. Draining is too important and 
expensive a work to be carelessly or unskillfully done. A mistake in locat- 
ing too far apart brings a failure to accomplish the end in view. K mis- 
take in placing them too near involves loss of time and money. Consult, 
then, those whose experience has given them knowledge, and pay to a pro- 
fessional engineer, or some other skilled person, a small amount for aid, 
which will probably save ten times as much in the end. 

Now let us consider the necessary size of tile to use under various con- 
dhions. It is shown statistically that the maximum rainfall per hour is 
about one inch. One inch of rainfall per hour gives 22.G33 gallons per 
hour for each acre, or 377 gallons per minute per square acre. 

It is proven, also, that owing to obstructions not over 50 to 75 per cent 
of the rain falling will reach the drain within the same hour. Due allow- 
ance should be made for this fact in determining the size of tile required, 
as severe storms are generally of short duration. Remembering triese 
points, the following table showing the number of gallons discharged per 
minute for specific sizes and grades of tile, will assist in determining the 
size of pipe to be used in the work. 



Carnjing Capdcitif of Dniins. 



229 



CARRYING CAPACITY- 

Dlanif'tcr of I'iiii. 8 in. (Sin. 

'I'ile full ))tr fall piT fall per 

In inches lOU ft. 100 It. 100 ft. 

23/2 14 20 28 

3 21 30 42 

4 36 52 76 

5 54 78 111 

6 84 120 169 

8 144 208 304 

9 232 330 470 

10 267 378 563 

12 470 680 960 

15 830 1180 1680 

18 1300 1850 2630 

20 1760 2450 3450 

24 3000 4112 5871 



-GALLONS PER MINUTE. 



9 in. 
"ill I per- 
100 ft. 


1 foot 

fall per 
100 ft. 


18 in. 

fall per 

100 ft. 


2 ft. 
fall per 
100 ft. 


3 ft. 
fall per 
100 ft. 


34 


40 


49 


55 


68 


52 


60 


74 


85 


104 


92 


108 


132 


148 


184 


134 


159 


192 


219 


369 


206 


240 


294 


338 


414 


368 


432 


528 


592 


736 


570 


660 


810 


930 


1140 


655 


803 


926 


1340 


1613 


1160 


1360 


1670 


1920 


2350 


3040 


2370 


2920 


3340 


4100 


3200 


3740 


4600 


5270 


G470 


^J180 


4860 


5980 


6850 


8410 


7302 


8303 


10021 


11743 


14466 



TOOLS AND* IMPLEMENTS. 

The implements convenient for drainage depend on many circumstances. 
They depend upon the character of the earth to be moved. A sharp, light 
spade, which may work rapidly and v/ell in a light loam or sand, may be 
entirely unfit to drive into a stiif clay; and the fancy bottoming tools 
which may cut a soft clay or sand in nicely measured slices, will be fcund 
quite delicate for a liard-] an or gravel, where the pickaxe alone can open 
a passage. 

One man works best with a long-Iiandled spado, another prefers a short 
handle; one drives it in the earth with the right foot, another with the 
left. A laboring man in general works best Avith such tools as he is accus- 
tomed to handle; while theoriziiig implement makers, working out their 
patterns by the light of reason, may produce such a tool as a man ought 
to work with, without adapting it at all to the capacity or taste of the 
laborer. A man should be measured for his tools, as much as for his gar- 
ments, and not be expected to fit himself to another's notions more than 
to another's coat. 

If the land owner proposes to act as his own engineer the first instru- 
ment he will want to use is a spirit level, or some other contrivance by 
which he may ascertain the variations of the surface of his field. The 
natural way for a Yankee to get at the grades is to guess at them, and this 
practically is what is usually done. Ditches are opened where there ap- 
pears to be a descent; and if there is water running, the rise is estimated 



230 Drainage and Implements. 

by its current; and if there is no water rising in the drain, a bucketful is 
occasionally put in to guide the laborer in his work. No one who has not 
tested the accuracy, or rather inaccuracy, of his judgment as to level'; of 
fields can at all appreciate the deceitfulness of appearances on this point. 
The human eye will see straight, but it will not see level without a guide. 
It forms conclusions by comparisons; and the lines of upland, of forest 
tops and of distant hills all conspire to confuse the judgment, so that 
it is quite common for a brook to appear to the eye to run up hill, even 
when it has a quick current. 

And so it is as to the regular inclination of the bottoms of drains. It 
is desirable not only to have an inclination as nearly as possible, especially 
if the descent be small. Workmen are very apt to work at a uniform rlopth 
from the surface line; and thus at one point there may be a fall of one 
inch in a rod, at another twice that fall, and at another a dead level or 
even hollow. We have found in twelve rods a variation of a foot in the 
bottom line of a drain opened by skillful workmen on a nearly level field, 
where they had no water to guide them, and where they had supposed 
their fall was regular throughout. 

The following device has proved so satisfactory in an experience of sev- 
eral years" that it is now thought to be almost indispensable. Two strips 
of pine board or other light wood about seven feet long and two and one- 
half to three inches wide, are joined by a small carriage bolt placed about 
six inches from the upper end, and forming shears as represented. The 
lower end of thse strips should be square so that they will not readily settle 
into the ground when pressed from above. 

The line, which should be small and strong like a mason's line, passing 
over the fork at the upper end of the shears, should be wound once around 
one of the arms to prevent slipping, and then fastened to a peg driven 
in the ground some six feet from the foot of the shears and nearly in line 
of the ditch. If the peg is driven nearer the foot of the shears than the 
height of the line above the ground, the strain will be greater on that 
part of the line between the top of the shears and the ground than it is 
between the shears, and the line will be liable to be broken near the end 
when ^subjected to the necessary tension. 

The smaller the line the better, if it has the required strength, as it is 
less liable to sag between the shears. To prevent the line from sagg-ing 
when the shears are quite a distance apart, ''gage stakes" of the form to 
be described, are placed at convenient intervals along the ditch bet\^een 
the shears. A round rod of hard wood, about seven feet long and one 
and one-half inches in diameter (a long fork handle will answer), forms 



Effect of Drainage. 231 

the vertical part of the gage. This rod should have a sharp point at the 
lower end (which can be readily made from a piece of gas pipe), and an 
iron band at the upper end to prevent splitting when driven into the 
ground. The horizontal arm, about two feet lonng, should be 2x2^/2 
inches at the end through which the vertical rod passes, and tapering, 
for the sake of lightness, to three-fourths of an inch square at the ojipo- 
site end. A rivet should be put through the base of the arm, back of tlie 
key, to prevent splitting. The vertical rod is driven into the ground near 
the edge of the ditch, and the horizontal arm is slid up until the sag of 
the line is corrected, when it is secured by the key, which clamps it to 
the rod. 

In laying tile from three to four feet deep my practice has been to ad- 
just the line seven feet above and parallel to the desired grade, and then 
to make use of a seven-foot measuring staff to determine the depth of 
excavation required below the line. If the ditches are deeper the line can 
be placed higher and a longer measuring staff used to correspond to the in- 
creased height. When working with a seven foot staff, if all but the last 
foot of the excavation is made before the line is put up it will not be in the 
way, as it is high enough to allow a man to work when standing in the 
ditch. 

EFFECT OF DRAINAGE. 

The effects of drainage upon the soil are very plain and important. The 
roots of the plants in the und rained soil are confined near the surface, cut 
off by the water line, the plant yellows and dwarfs. The root of the plant 
in the drained soil run down, and spread out in search of supplies, hence 
the vigorous growth. 

That a deep soil is better than a shallow one is well known to every 
observing farmer. We say of certain fields "the soil is thin," by which 
we mean that the field has a shallow feeding ground, for the roots of our 
crops will not grow in the water. Then a deep soil is better than a shal- 
low one because the roots descend much deeper for plant food. In reten- 
tive clay soils w^e can have a depth of active soil as deep as we drain. Corn 
roots have been found at a depth of eight feet and wheat roots at a depth 
of five feet. 

A drained soil becomes a great laboratory in which is prepared the 
necessary supply of food for the growing crop down as deep as the tile is 
laid. The water passing down through the po^-es to the drain below is 
followed by the air absorbed by the soil, which the roots, following down 
through the same spaces, take up. 



&33 Drainage Insures Certainty of Crops. 

DRAINAGE INSURES CERTAINTY OF CROPS. 

The cultivator of level unclra.inGd land is continually harassed in mind 
about the uncertainty of his business. He must wait until the season 
is well advanced to jlow his land. Then if he plants, he is uncertain 
whether the weather will be favorable or unfavorable. It may "turn off 
wet" and the constant evaporation, keeping the land cold, causes the teed 
to rot. If the season be favorable for the germination of the seed, and 
the young and tender plants appear, then it may turn off showery, and 
the land becomes so wet as to place it out of his power to cultivate it, and 
the crop turns out badly; or if the season be dry in the after part, the 
land which is naturally wet will dry out and become hard and the crops 
damaged. Hence it is that such a farmer must plod along on uncertainties, 
accept his fate and blame Providence. 

But the farmer who cultivates land which is thoroughly underdrained 
can break it a week or ten days earlier in the spring; the soil is loose 
and friable; and he can plant fully ten da3's earlier with a positive cer- 
tainty that the seed, if good, will germinate; he can cultivate sooner, 
and with a third less labor to both man and beast; can be stirring the 
soil in twentj'-four hours after a heavy rainfall. The soil is warmer, 
and promotes the more rapid growth of the crop, and is less liable to dam- 
age from late frosts in spring, or early frosts in autumn, practically length- 
ening the season for growth and maturity fully thirty days, or if the 
weather should be dry, the roots descending deep into the earth bring up 
moisture from below, producing an abundant yield. Whether the season 

be wet or drv, the farmer on drained land has a certaintv of an abundant 

. . . * 

yield which enables him to mature his plants without liability of failure. 

The experience of the past seasons of extreme drought in some localities 
has fully demonstrated the fact that the drainage protects against dam- 
age from this cause. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

In the beginning of the work it should be carefully laid out. the inclina- 
tion marked on grade stakes, and the whole should be platted and care- 
fully preserved for future reference. If it is not possible to complete the 
work soon, let it be done so as to look forward to the time when it is 
completed. 

In laying the drain, it is well to strictly adhere to the following rules: 

1. Tlie drain should have a sufficient outlet for the discharge of the 
water Ihat may pass through it. 

2. The drain should be deep enough to drain the widest space possible 



Points to Remember About Drainage. 233 

from three oi four feet and deeper if necessary, to get the water out by a 
much shorter line, but drain any way, even if you cannot get outlet to 
drain so deep. 

3. The bottom of the drain should be one regular line of descent, so 
that the current may have a smooth flow from the head to the mouth of 
the drain. 

4. Every tile should be perfect in form and burned, having a clear 
metallic ring. 

5. In laying the tile, take pains to fit the joints closely, as with all 
care there will be sufficient space for the inlet of the water, and close joints 
will prevent the letting in of silt of washings. 

6. At the junction of the drains, the water should be brought together, 
flowing as nearly as possible in the same direction, so that the flow of 
the current may not be obstructed. 

7. The size of the tile may be pretty 'accurately determined by the 
amount of surface to be drained and tlie descent of the drain. 

8. At the point where the work ceases for the time, secure and note 
the same, that the work may be readily taken up at any time. 

9. If the drains be laid at a distance of forty feet apart, sixty-four 
rods of tile are required to lay one acre; if at a distance of fifty feet 
apart, fifty-two rods and a fraction will be required, and at a distance 
of sixty feet apart, forty-four rods. 

WHEN LAYING DRAIN TILE REMEMBER 

1. To begin the work at the lowest end or outfall. 

2. Start deep enough to drain your whole field. 

3. To get all the fall possible. 

4. To dig your ditch straight. Xo curves should be allowed in the 
straight p^'pe. Wlien they are necessary, use fittings specially made for 
the purpose. 

5. To lay the tile straight. This can be done by using a taut string a3 
a guide and placing the pipe under it. 

6. To lay the tile so that every piece has the same fall. In other words, 
the whole line should have a true alignment and regular grade. This is 
important. 

7. To pack lightly a little dirt alongside of each tile to hold it in 
place before filling the ditch. 

8. To be careful to place the tile tightly against the one preceding. 
Don't try tn leave space between the tile for the water to get in. It will 
always find a way. 



334 Fertilizers. 

9. To cover the joints with grass, weeds or paper, to prevent the dirt 
entering before the soil is packed tightly. 

10. To fill up ditches carefully and note results. 

COST OF TILING PER ACRE. 

It would be a difficult matter to give the exact cost of tiling per acre, 
because some land needs more tiling than others. It is more expejisive 
to lay tiling on heavy clay lands than light, porous soils. The cost of 
tiling also differs in various localities, on_ account of freight charges or 
long hauls. It is only possible to state that tiling may cost from $10.00 
to $30.00 per acre, but no matter what the price or cost of land may 
be, in point of productiveness one acre properly tiled is worth two untiled. 



FERTILIZERS. 



The importance of fertilizers in the Southern garden or orcha^^'d plays 
such an important part that this entire book would be of little practical 
value were we to omit a full and concise description of fertilizers as 
auxiliaries to promote vegetable growth. While all plants derive nutri- 
tion from moisture and atmosphere to a limited extent, just as soon as 
the nutrition from the seed is exhausted and the plant forms roots, it 
is thrown upon its own resources, and its ability to find further nutri- 
tion in the soil in which it is planted. The soil itself is not a fertilizer; 
it is only valuable because it provides a place of rest to the plant, and 
absorbs and holds moisture and fertilizing elements, and by the plow and 
cultivators these elements, assisted by the moisture of rains, sun's rays 
or even freezing, are converted into plant food and assimilated by the 
plants. These facts are plain to the culturist, who has readily observed 
that thorough preparation of the soil and cultivation means always in- 
creased crops. In naturally rich and alluvial soils for a number of years cul- 
tivation would be about all required to produce maximum crops, but there are 
poor soils, worn-out soils; there are products that require a great deal 
more nutriment than others; there are even crops which improve the soil 
(leguminous crops), and where the soil lacks the proper amount of nutri- 
ments required for a certain crop the deficienc must be applied with 
stable manure, or what is termed artificial or commercial fertilizers. In 
Parts 2 and 3 of this book we give complete directions for just what kind 
of fertilizer and how much per acre to apply for each fruit and vegetable 
grown in the South. 



Fertilizers, Their iSonrces; Nitrogen. 235 

FERTILIZERS AND THEIR SOURCES. 

The various artificial manures, called fertilizers, have come into general 
use since the year 1840. In that year the famous German chemist Baron 
von Liebig, published his epoch-making book on agricultural chemistry. 
Every farmer should bear in mind the principles underlying the use of 
commercial fertilizers, which were first defined by Liebig, as follows: 

1. "A soil can be termed fertile only when it contains all the materials 
requisite for the nutrition of plants in the required quantity and in the 
proper form. 

2. "With every crop a part of these ingredients is removed. A part of 
this part is added against from the inexhaustible store of the atmosphere; 
another part, however, is lost forever if not replaced by man. 

3. "The fertility of the soil remains unchanged if all the ingredients 
of the crop are given back to tlie land. Such a restitution is effected by 
manure. (It may be stated that there is some loss due to leaching and a 
change of availability of food applied.) 

4. "The manure produced in the course of husbandry is not sufficient 
to maintain permanently the fertility of a farm. It lacks the constitu- 
ents which are annually exported in the shape of grain, hay, milk and live 
stock." 

Practical experience has proved that, as a rule, nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash are the substances most needed to be applied to soils, to 
make or to keep them fertile, and that many soils are improved by the 
mere addition of lime. In conjunction with these elements, soils must con- 
tain a certain amount of humus or decayed organic matter, to maintain 
them in a proper mechanical condition. 

NITROGEN. 

"N'itrogen is necessary for the production of protoplasm (the physical 
basis of life). Without it there can be no plant growth; it is a powerful 
stimulant, and, when present in excess, causes a rapid and excessive, but 
watery and unnatural growth, which is made at the expense of fruitfulness. 
Too much nitrogen on wheat shows its ill-effects in such a rank growth 
of the plant, and, later, of straw, as to be unable to sustain its excessive 
weight until the grain is matured; on cotton, by great growth of plant 
and but few blossoms, which mature fewer bolls; on fruit trees by a lapid 
and sappy growth which produces little fruit. 

Leguminous crops (such as clover, beans, peas, etc.) draw their supply 
of nitrogen from the air, and, therefore, an artificial application of nitro- 
gen fertilizer to this class of plants is rarely needed. 



23(> Fertilizers; Phosphoric Acid, Potash. 

The more common sources of nitrogen in commeroial fertilizers are 
nitrate of soda, cotton seed meal, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood and 
tankage. Fish scrap, castor pomace and other materials are also used. 

The nitrogen in nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia acts a little 
more quickly than that in dried blood, tankage and the organic substances. 
Being easily soluble, it is best to use nitrate of soda as top dressing at 
time of planting, or in case of wheat, when active growth begins in April 
— other nitrogeneous fertilizers may safely be applied at time of plant- 
ing — the nitrogen will become available as it is needed by the growing 
plant. 

PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

Phosphoric acid is necessary for the healthy growth of plants, and is 
essential to the best production of straw and seed. Its deficiency in a 
soil is shown by the want of vigor in its plant life. To produce its 
full effect, however, it must be used on a soil already rich in nitrogen, or 
be associated with nitrogen in the fertilizer; otherwise it will produce a 
tall, pale and spindling growth of straw with very small increase of grain 
or fruit. It has a marked effect in hastening maturity and should be 
used freely on all crops which It is desired to ripen early. 

The principal commercial sources of phosphoric acid are raw, phos- 
phate rock, acid phosphate, or dissolved phosphate rock, dissolved bone 
black, bone meal, dissolved bone and Thomas slag. In ground phosphate 
Tock, or floats and bone black, the phosphoric acid is insoluble or unavail- 
able, so that these materials produce effects very slowly. They are used 
occasionally for composts, but cannot be recommended for direct applica- 
tion to the soil. Bone black and raw phosphates are treated with sulphuric 
acid, which renders the phosphoric acid soluble, and the material is then 
known under the general name of superphosphate, or acid phosphate. All 
phosphoric acid, when once available, is of equal value; phosphoric acid in 
dissolved rock to that from dissolved bone, and there is no difference as 
to value on account of the source from which it is derived. 

POTASH. 

Potash is found in large quantities in all plants. It is essential to 
the production of starch fiber and the growing parts of the plant ; without 
it there cannot be full development of plant or seed. In combination with 
nitrogen and phosphoric acid, potash contributes to the full and perfect 
development of plants. Excess of potash does not show any special effect 
on the plant, but a weakened growth, a lack of fruitfulness, and especially 



Fertilizers; Lime. 237 

a, slow and unsatisfactory development of starcli and woody fiber follows its 
(lellciency iu the soil. 

The greatest potash supply in the world is found at Strassfurt, Ger- 
many, where soluble potash salts are mined in large quantities. Muriate 
of potash is the cheapest form of potash, but not best suited for certain 
crops, like tobacco and oranges. Then sulphate of potash, or the sul- 
phate of potash and magnesia, should be used. Kainit is another potash 
salt containing chlorine, and is especially valuable for use on sandy soils, 
not only for its fertilizing qualities, but also for its peculiar property of 
retaining moisture, and its power of destroying insect life and preventing 
plant diseases, such as cotton blight. It is valued highly on the cotton 
lands of the South. 

Wood ashes are also a valuable source of potash, though the amount 
contained is small and variable. Ashes made on the place should be kept 
dry and used on the heavier soils. When potash must be purchased 
it is less expensive in the German salts than in ashes. 

One fact, clearly demonstrated by the work of the experiment stations, 
is that "soda cannot take the place of potash as a form of plant food." 
Plants cannot grow without potash, but are indifferent to the presence 
of soda, indeed they can thrive in a soil which contains no soda at all. 
When potash is lacking, no amount of soda will produce growth. 

Potash in the fonn of wood ashes and cottonseed hull ashes consists 
largely as carbonate of potash. Carbonate of potash is useful as plant 
food, but cannot safely be mixed with organic nitrogenous fertilizer 
materials, as this form of potash rapidly decomposes organic maters, accom- 
panied by more or less loss of ammonia. 

LIME. 

Lime improves the condition of swampy and peaty soils, which consist 
largely of humus and are consequently rich in nitrogen, but this nitrogen 
is unavailable, owing to the slow decay of the humus in some of these 
soils, so lime furnishes the conditions necessary for a more rapid decay. 
Such soils sometimes need phosphoric acid and potash as well as lime. 

Lime also performs a valueable oflfice in the sweetening of soils. When 
a soil betrays excess of acid, by turning blue litmus paper red, lime is 
needed. It also makes heavy clays light and more porous, and renders 
the plant food in them, as w-ell as in muck, more available. Quick- 
lime, marl and burnt oyster shells are the more common source 
of lime. To produce the results above noted quicklime from stone or 
oysters .shells is more effective. 



238-' What Fertilizers to Use. 

STABLE MANURE. 

Barnyard or stable manure is often regarded by farmers as being a 
"complete fertilizer," and the only fertilizer needed on any soil. This 
is correct only so far as such manure contains all three of the fertiliz- 
ing elements, but they are rarely found in the proportions needed by dif- 
ferent crops. There is usually an excess of nitrogen and not enough phos- 
phoric acid and potash. When stable manure is allowed to decompose by 
exposure to the weather, a large part of the nitrogen, its most valuable 
element of plant food, is lost in the form of ammonia. This loss, how- 
ever, can be largely prevented by scattering Kainit over the surface of 
the manure as it accumulates, using about one pound per day for each 
cow or horse, or for each eight head of sheep. The Kainit will save more 
than its cost in the value of the nitrogen it prevents from escaping in the 
form of ammonia gas, and will still possess all its original value as a 
plant food. When stable manure is treated in this way, the addition of 
phosphoric acid will make it a complete fertilizer of the very hiabest 
quality. 

WHAT FERTILIZERS TO USE. 

The kind and amount of fertilizers which can be most economically used 
on a certain crop or on a certain soil, can be determined only by an actual 
test. No chemical analysis of either the soil or the plant will show this 
accurately. The kind of fertilizing needed will depend more upon the 
natural character of the soil, its previous treatment and its present mechan- 
ical condition, than upon the actual plant food taken up by the growing 
crop. The following suggestions as to the amount and composition of the 
fertilizers needed for different crops are based on the experience of ex- 
periment stations, and of successful farmers in different parts of the coun- 
try. The figures here given represent the averages which have been found 
most profitable on ordinary soils in fair condition. The kind and amount 
of fertilizer required depend in a measure on the preceding crop. Thus 
the crop following clover or cow peas needs less nitrogen; while the one 
following the cereals, timothy, sorghum or millet, demands a liberal supply. 

In nearly all cases, the amount of nitrogen needed depends on the kind 
of crop to be grown and what has preceded it; while the amounts of phos- 
phoric acid and potash depend more on the natural character of the soil. 
In general a soil rich in lime needs little phosphoric acid, and is greatly 
improved by potash, both of which are essential to the production of plen- 
tiful crops. Phosphoric acid and potash are fairly permanent and when 
an excess is applied they remain in the soil, available as food for future 
crops 



Home-Made Fertilizers. 239 

HOW TO MAKE HOME-MADE FERTILIZERS. 

Every farmer, orchardist or vegetable grower should understand the true 
and economic value of home-made fertilizers. It is not always possible 
to obtain stable manure in suJSficient quantities to supply the demand. The 
farmer, and especially the truck-grower, is forced to use what is termed 
commercial fertilizers; while these fertilizers supply, with their salts and 
acids, specific wants of plant life, they do not and cannot improve the 
land permanently. After the commercial fertilizers are applied and the 
crop harvested, the land is as poor as it was before, and even poorer, and in 
course of time will be so exhausted as to be unable to produce maximum 
crops. 

In addition to the commercial fertilizers the land either requires rest 
in sod for a number of years, the plowing under of leguminous crops or 
the application of stable manures to supply humus to the soil. To cir- 
cumvent this demand and to derive the greatest value from the accumula- 
tion of the barnyard manure it is advisable to establish the compost heap 
and add gradually such chemical manures to decompose the natural 
manures, to be more readily assimilated by the plant roots and also by 
the added strength supply a greater want, and at the same time add 
strength and humus to the crops at the same time. All accumulations of 
the farm, orchard and garden, such barnyard manures, chicken droppings, 
hog manures, night soils, leaf mold, muck, ashes, decayed wood, wheat or 
oats straw, and corn stalks all contribute and form the basis of the com- 
post heap, and in the combination exists their greatest value, and par- 
ticularly when commercial fertilizers, such as acid phosphate, is added to 
apply all of the wants of plant life. The application of this mixture not 
only insures one crop, but the effects will be noticed in several crops, and 
the improvement of the soil will be perceptible for a number of years. 

COMPOST HEAP. 

For the heap select any piece of ground near the barn and packing shed, 
dig a trench twelve feet wide, twenty feet long and three feet deep, throw 
the excavated dirt around the edges to form a bank to exclude surface 
water, erect posts and provide any cheap roof; if the roof leaks, all the 
])etter. Spread in the bottom manure, or some of all the ingredients men- 
tioned above, two feet thick, and wet the same thoroughly. Over this 
scatter 100 pounds of acid phosphate, then with another layer of manure 
or oiVal and phosphate, until the supply is exhausted. Cover the whole 
with straw, old hay, leaves or any waste material. Be sure to wet all 
thoroughly. After tl.e l^eaj) lias stood from five to six weeks it should then 



240 Ihnr la Uset Commercial FcrtiKzers. 

be worked over and mixed. This is best done by starting at one end and 
cutting it down, throwing the manure in a pile behind ; cover again. It 
will be ready to use on the land in four weeks. 

Three two-horse loads of this compost to the acre in tlic garden will 
show decidedly better ]-esults than twenty loads of common manure, iuitl 
improve the land permanently for several years. While there are many 
recipes for home-made manures, there is nothing better or more economic 
than the above. A small shovelful of this compost applied to the hill for 
watermelons, cantaloupes, cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., will show some sur- 
prising results, as everything is there of nutrition to supply the plants, 
and bring them to the highest state of efficiency. 

HOW TO USE COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 

From what has been snid above, and since commercial fertilizers act in 
two ways, i. e., perform tlie double functions of supplying food direct to 
plants and of rendering available plant food already contained in the soil, 
their most economical use is as supplements to the home supply of manure. 
It is not possible to permanently improve a soil by the use of commercial 
fertilizers alone. In order to effect a permanent increase in the soil's 
productions, commercial fertilizers should always be used in connection 
with stable manure, green manuring and rotation of crops. By green 
manuring we mean that a crop of vegetable matter, preferably cow peas, 
should be turned into the soil at least once every two years. We should 
also be able to have our soil in the very best mechanical condition possi- 
ble, and give the very best of cultivation. The question of the right amount 
of moisture is a very important one, for the best results cannot be obtained 
with either too much or too little. 

The final question is, how and when to apply the fertilizer. 

We recommend that wdiere quantities of from 200 to 400 pounds are to 
be used, the fertilizer is best applied from a week to ten days before the 
time of planting. With these quantities apply as follows: 

After the bed is thrown up, open same with a furrow down tlic center, 
being careful to open it at least one to two inches deeper than it is intended 
to put the seed. Distribute the fertilizr by hand or with a machine in 
this furrow, mix it with the soil, running a bull-tongue at least twice 
in the drill, then close the drill with a harrow and reopen for the seed, 
or drop v/ith a planter, being careful that the seeds do not come in contact 
with the fertilizer. This mixing of the fertilizer with the soil and pre- 
venting direct contact with seed is very important. If the seed and fer- 
tilizer are in contact the vitality of the seed will be wholly or partially 



Valiiahle Fertilizer Items. 341 

dfstroyed and tlie result will be a poor stand. If the fertilizer is not 
mixed with the soil, the crop is apt to fire badly with the first dry spell. 
If larger quantities than those mentioned are to be used, then it i? voll 
to put one portion in the drill and at the first working bar oH a light 
furrow on both sides and apply the balance, covering it with piihcequont 
cultivation. Soils vary so much that it is not possible in a general article 
of this kind to tell just what mixtures to use. As a rule our farmers 
will find cottonseed meal and acid phosphate the best fertilizers, and un- 
less large quantities are to be used, they had better mix these themselves. 
Very poor soils will do well with a mixture of two parts by weight of 
cottonseed meal and one part of acid phosphate for corn. The same soil 
would require equal parts of meal and acid phosphate for cotton. On 
better soils, especially soils that have grown cow peas the year previous, or 
to which stable manure has been recently applied, the latter mixture would 
do for corn, and then it would suit cotton were we to use two parts .'icid 
phosphate to one of cottonseed meal. On the richest soils very little nitro- 
gen is required and three parts of phosphate to one of cottonseed meal 
would be right. An intelligent use of commercial fertilizers is very im- 
portant. When used in this way they are a valuable aid to the farmer, 
and are a great factor in assisting him to fight the boll weevil, but it 
will not do to depend upon them alone. If this is done he soon pays the 
penalty in a failure of the crop. "Wliile soils do deteriorate when we de- 
pend upon commercial fertilizers alone, this deterioration is not so much 
due to their imp over ishmeni by the action of the fertilizer as to the de- 
struction of vegetable matter. A soil devoid of vegetable matter is un- 
productive, no matter how much plant food it may contain. Such soils 
are exceedingly subject to the efi'ects of drought. Therefore in order to 
derive the greatest benefits from the use of commercial fertilizers it is 
necessary to use barnyard manures and green crop manures abundantly, 
with thorough tillage. 



VALUABLE FERTILIZES ITEMS. 

FERTILIZERS FOR IRISH POTATOES. 

(By Prof. A. M. Soule.) 
Irish potatoes may be cultivated successfully and profitably on a great 
variety of soils. Those wlio have had experience realize that with the labor 
saving machinery now available this crop can be grown and leave a fair 
margin of profit at a comparatively low sale price per bushel. One thing, 
however, is essential, namely, that good yields bo obtained. In many in- 



242 Valuable Fertilizer Items. 

stances not over 100 bushels of marketable potatoes are grown per acre. 
Careful experiments show that from 300 to 500 bushels can be obtained, 
and that very heavy applications of commercial fertilizers will prove 
especially profitable on the Irish potato crop. WLcic a yield oi' DOG 
bushels . of marketable tubers are obtained per acre a sale price of forty 
cents per bushel on the farm will leave the grower a larger margin of 
profit than he can obtain from many other crops which he is endeavoring 
to grow. Observation indicates that while a glut in the potato market 
may occur, the wide-awake, up-to-date grower of his crop who studies 
the situation carefully will one year with another obtain a fair reward 
for his industry. Potatoes require certain favorable conditions for this 
perfect development. A soil rich in humus is one of the conditions which 
must be provided for this crop. An old sod, clover preferred, turned 
under during the winter or early spring and thoroughly worked or cul- 
tivated until as fine as a garden provides the most favorable soil for this 
crop. Even heavy clays may be ulilized suceessi'ully for . the growth 
of Irish potatoes! if they are abundantly supplied with vegetable matter. 
A loam, however, provides a naturally better soil, and light sandy soils, 
or those of a gravelly nature which drain well, can be brought into a 
condition favorable for the production of this crop by adding humus 
through the plowing under of green leguminous crops. The potato loves 
a moist soil, provided it is well drained, which explains in a measure 
why humus is so essential for the best results with this crop. 

The attempt to grow Irish potatoes on soils well filled with vegetable 
matter will not be satisfactory unless there is a plentiful supply of avail- 
able phosphorus and potassium in the soil. This explains why many 
farmers who frequently plow under clover or coat their land witli farm- 
yard manure look upon the cultivation of Irish potatoes as an unprofit- 
able enterprise. As a matter of fact, they have supplied their land with 
an overabundance of one of the elements necessary for the production 
of this crop, but left it sadly deficient in the two others, which are just 
as necessary and just as important. This is a truth well worthy the 
earnest consideration of everyone who attempts to grow potatoes. For 
instance, a yield of 300 bushels of Irish potatoes per acre would take 
from the land fifty-one pounds of nitrogen, thirty pounds of phosphoric 
acid and 102 pounds of potash. This shows that the Irish potato is 
clearly a potash-loving crop, and those who have the best success in rais- 
ing it have realized this very important point. 

The culinary quality of the Irish potato is influenced very considerably 
by the soil and the fertilizers used in its production. On this account 



Testing Fertilizers. 243 

sulphate of potash should be used on this crop, because it favors the de- 
velopment of a potato of excellent cooking qualities. Muriate of potash 
might be used but for the chlorine contained therein, which favors the 
development of a potato that is slick and more or less watery when 
cooked. The selection of the form of potash used is therefore a mat- 
ter worthy of careful consideration on the part of the grower. As to the 
amounts to apply per acre on land that is well supplied with vegeta- 
ble matter, a mixture of 750 pounds of high grade acid phosphate, 500 
pounds of sulphate of potash and 750 pounds of dry earth will give a 
fertilizer containing 6 per cent of available phosphoric acid and 12y2 per 
cent of potash. This mixture may be used at the rate of 500 to 1,500 
pounds per acre with benefit and profit under most conditions. If desira- 
ble the amount of phosphates and potash can be increased or decreased 
by adding to or taking from the amount of acid phosphate or sulphate 
of potash mixed with a given amount of dry earth filler. In many soils 
there may be a deficiency of available nitrogen. In that instance a com- 
plete fertilizer may be used profitably. On lands well supplied with veg- 
etable matter, where it is desirable to grow early potatoes, a quickly avail- 
able nitrogenous manure will often be highly beneficial. On this ac- 
count it will be important to know several complete fertilizer mixtures 
which may be used with satisfaction in the production of Irish potatoes. 
A mixture containing 3.7 per cent of nitrogen, 7.4 per cent of phosphoric 
acid and 9.4 per cent of potash may be made by using 850 pounds of 
16 per cent acid phosphate, 600 pounds of cottonseed meal, 200 pounds 
of nitrate of soda, 350 lbs. of high grade sulphate of potash. A mixture 
containing 3.9 per cent of high grade nitrogen, 8 per cent of phosphoric 
acid and 10 per cent of potash may be made by mixing 1,000 lbs. of high 
grade acid phosphate, 400 lbs. high grade sulphate of potash and 600 lbs. 
of dried blood. A mixture containing 4 per cent of nitrogen, 6.2 per cent 
of phosphoric acid and 10 per cent of potash may be made by mix- 
ing 900 pounds of high grade acid phosphate, 500 pounds of dried fish 
scrap, 200 pounds of sulphate of ammonia and 400 pounds of sulphate 
of potash. These mixtures should be used at the rate of 600 to 1,000 
pounds per acre. 

TESTING FEKTILIZERS. 

Experiments have been conducted in the experiment orchard at the 
Massa shusetts station since 1899, to test the relative effects of barnyard 
manure, wood ashes, bone meal and muriate of potash and bone meal 
and low grade sulphate of potash. In quantity of fruit plot, barnyard 
manure gave the largest return, while in cheapness of production and 



244 Use of CoinmercMl Fertilizers on Farm. 

in quality bone meal and sulphate of potash exceeded. Professor Brooks 
recommends the use of slowly available fertilizers in orchards, as these 
are obtained at less cost, with the same final results. 

USB OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS ON FARM. 

(By F. W. Morse.) 

It should always be borne in mind that the success of a crop depends 
on four other conditions besides that of the fertilizer used to feed it. 
All farm crops require certain average amounts of heat, light, air and 
water in order to develop an average growth, and just the right amount 
of each for the largest possible yield. 

Thus weather conditions may favor or hinder a crop to such an extent 
that 'the fertilizer has apparently no effect, and these facts have led 
more than one to the conclusion that fertilizers were useless. 

Fertilizers can not make good a lack of sunshine or rain, but they can 
help the sunshine and rain to do their best; therefore, \*'hen the weather 
is favorable they increase the profits and when it is unfavorable they lessen 
the losses. 

The condition of the ooii in its relation to air and -water is of the 
greatest importance in the profitable use of commercial fertilizers. Wnen 
a soil is too wet, it allows too little air to reach the roots of plants, 
simply because the water crows it out. In average seasons some soils are 
too wet and others are too dry for the following reasons: A crop of 
three tons of hay or one of fifteen tons of silage corn per acre would 
result in the removal from the soil of about 800 tons of water. To sup- 
ply this water, there would need to be between seven and eight inches 
of rainfall during the growing season to each crop. At Durham, the 
average rainfall in April, May and June is 9.5 inches, and during May, 
June, July and August it is 12.8 inches. If this rain were uniformly 
distributed, it Avould be fully enough for grass and a little too much for 
corn. 

On soils of average texture the requisite moisture conditions can be 
maintained by tillage, and if needed, by drainage on low levels, but with 
extreme types, as heavy clay loams or light sandy loams, there is needed 
more thorough treatment by increasing the amount of vegetable mat- 
ter, since there is no more effective way of making over a soil in its 
relation to water and air than this. 

In using the commercial fertilizers as a source of the food elements 
needed by crops, it should be remembered that there is little positive 
evidence that they can make over the soil in its relation to water, hence 



Fertilizers; Wood Ashes; Nitrate of Soda. 245 

they always do their best work and are most prolitable on soils which 
are in good average condition, neither too heavy and wet nor too light 
and dry. Furthermore, the continuous growth of annual crops, whether 
hoed or broadcast, adds no vegetable matter to the soil, except in the roots 
and stubble, and it is common to find that the first crop of corn on sod 
land, with commercial fertilizers, is superior to that of the second year, 
undoubtedly because the vegetable matter of the old turf helped main- 
tain a satisfactory moisture condition in the first year and was largely 
destroyed before the second year. 

rhe most economcial use of commercial fertilizers is only reached when 
they are aj.:plied in rotations in which the soil is maintained in good 
moisture condition by the use of barnyard manure or the vegetable mat- 
ter from crops grown for the purpose. 

Although the food elements in a commercial fertilizer form but one of 
the several conditions needed for the best developments of the cro]:-, it 
is important that these elements should be suited to the demands of the 
crop at every stage of its growth, else the product will not be as large 
as the other conditions would permit. It is the most common practice 
to use this class of fertilizers with the annual crop, and there are good 
reasons for such practice, as shown by fertilizer experiments. 

WOOD ASHES FOR FRUIT PLANTATIONS. 

Where wood ashes can be obtained they will usually be found to be 
of considerable value as a source of potash and phosphoric acid. They 
are especially good on the strawberry patch, if used in moderate quan- 
tities. Their value will depend on a number of things, chief of which 
is the kind of wood of which they were made. Some trees have only 
five or six per cent of potash in the ash, while trees like the elm are very 
rich in potash, the ash being sometimes as high as 25 per cent in potash. 
One ton of wood ashes would contain not less than 100 pounds of potash, 
which at five cents per pound is worth $5.00, while the phosphorus it 
contains should be worth in the neighborhood of another dollar, '^i'his 
makes a value of $6.00 for the' ton of ashes. This, of course, applies 
to unleached ashes. Leaching very materially decreases the value of 
ashes, as it removes a large proportion of the potash. Ashes also ?on- 
tain lime, which is of value on many soils. 

NITRATE OF SODA FOR POTATOES. 

College Station, Texas. — In the spring of 1906 siifficient nitrate of 
soda for one-half acre of potatoes was sent out to several potato ^rowers 



246 Lime as a Fertilizer. 

who had agreed to follow directions and report results. The nitrate of 
soda was to be added as a top dressing after the potatoes were up. The 
following results were reported : A grower from Van Zandt county re- 
ports the yield of nitrate of soda and 400 pounds of potato fertilizer at 
100 bushels per acre; the potato fertilizer without the nitrate of soda 
seventy-five bushels, showing a gain of twenty-five bushels per acre for 
the nitrate of soda. The nitrate of soda appears to have little value 
unless used in connection with a complete fertilizer. Grower N"o. 2, also 
of Van Zandt county, reports that nitrate of soda caused a very vigor- 
ous growth^ the plants were very dark green and continued so up to the 
time of digging. He was, however, unable to tell any difference in the 
yield of potatoes with and without nitrate of soda. A potato fertilizer 
was used by this grower also. Grower No. 3 of Grapeland, Texas, reports 
that a hail damaged the crop. He compared the nitrate of soda with 
150 pounds of cottonseed meal and did not observe any difference in the 
yield. The nitrate of soda appears to have a value equal to 150 pounds 
of cottonseed meal. Grower No. 4 of DeWitt county reports that the 
results were good. The yield was at least one-third more. G. S. T. 

LIME AS A FERTILIZER. 

While the use of lime in soil culture is a very ancient practice, and 
in past ages has ordinarily been commended, the methods of its actions 
in the soil have been, only recently, quite accurately determined. 

These are helpful, first, mechanically, on soils that are made thereby 
more friable, admitting air and water and reducing by abrasion more 
completely. 

Its action chemically is less obvious, varied and usually favorable to 
the release of plant food — plant growth. The sundry combinations in 
Nature's laboratory are often a justification of the kiln-burner, but as 
they are not always so the subject deserves very careful study. 

To use lime not needed is burying money in a hole from which there 
may be no resurrection of the "one talent" or even of the "napkin" in 
which it was enveloped. 

Lime is not a plant food; its material quality is distinctly called non- 
manurial, a stimulant; its function, when helpful, is indirect; its action 
that of a reagent; new land, the recipient of vegetable decay, the drop- 
ping of leaf fall for countless ages, is very productive for a time. As 
it fails in fertility the humus left unexhausted by culture is often burned 
up by caustic lime and never afterward restored. 



Lime as a Fetrilizer. 247 

Such soil is declared "worn out." It is sterile, and lime is a finishing 
factor in the degredation. 

We find human experience of the hurtful use of lime crystalized in Ger- 
many in the adage, "Lime makes the farmer richer and the farm poorer." 
Its English equivalent is 'Tiime enriches the father and impoverishes 
the sons." 

Is the purchase of elemental fertility in practical proportions, as needed, 
a saner and safer practice than the attempt to accomplish the same good 
results with lime by a course of intricate chemical gymnastics, so in- 
direct and uncertain, as possibly never to attain the end sought? 

Think about it. The concensus of opinion among thoughtful cultivators 
of the soil, strongly urged by chemists who have given attention to this 
phase of the action of calcareous application is, that continued success with 
lime can only be assured by the use of other essential manurial sub- 
stances in connection with it. 

'Jjime may then impoverish soil; and as many of our important crops 
are injured by its use it is plain it is a dangerous element, which, though 
it is frankly admitted, we may not wisely discard altogether, we may, 
and should, only urge its use when the chance for good to come of it is 
clearly demonstrated. 

On regular field crops grown here our local experiences are variant and 
inconclusive. They do not "advise" the use of lime, but are favorable 
enough to "suggest" its use. 

There are two easy tests that go very far to prove the propriety of the 
use of lime, both of which should be tried before a kiln is built. The 
easy test for soil acidity isi blue litmus paper. This buried in moist soil 
overnight will turn pink if too much acidity is found. Or if beets be 
planted in long rows with and without lime. If lime be needed the row 
on which it is used will respond to its presence very conclusively. 

The indictment of lime then appears strong but qualified: 

It is not a manure; it is a stimulant. 

It cannot directly feed plants to an appreciable extent. 

It destroys vegetable molds of fertile soils. 

It is useless in soils devoid of decaying humus. 

It costs money. 

In its favor: it makes acid soils mildly alkaline, a condition favorable 
to better development of many plants, especially so to most of the legumes. 

It helps the physical condition of some tough clays. 

It is substituted for potash, making the insoluble silicates of potash 
available. 



248 Lime as a Fertilizer. 

It is credited with developing the microscopic microbes that produce 
soluble nitrates, and this we accept as its greatest function in the prob- 
lems of how to feed the human race. 

But scientists argue that our treatment of the burned rock allows it to 
revert, by atmospheric absorption of carbonic acid gas, into the snmo in- 
soluble form in which it was found in the \inburned rocks. This is no 
doubt theoretically true, but as the process of relapse is not complete, its 
soluble and caustic quality is not lost altogether in this way. However, 
it is advised to slake the lime with water under cover of soil. 

This last direction does not appear imperative (if desirable), for 
the reason that the heat developed in the slaking lime will for a time pre- 
vent absorption of carbonic acid gas, and the distribution may follow the 
slaking rather promptly. It should be used in the fall on wheat, followed 
bv clover. 



PART VI. 



BENEFITS OF ORGANIZATION AMONG FRUIT 

AND TRUCK GROWERS AND POULTRY 

RAISERS IN THE SOUTH. 



BENEFITS OF ORGANIZATION AMONG 
FRUIT AND TRUCK GROWERS. 

There are so man}' advantages to be derived from organizing fruit and 
truck growers into permanent organization at any and every Southern 
shipping station that there is hardly any need to dwell at any length upon 
this important subject. Everyone familiar with the intricacies and diffi- 
culty of shipping perishable fruits and vegetables has readily observed 
that organization is almost a necessity to achieve success. 

Tlie social systematic meetings of the growers, the discussion of vital 
and interesting points about soils, fertilizers, different varieties of seeds, 
the proper harvesting of the products, packing and shipping, all contribute 
success to many, where one or a few might fail. 

It has long ago been demonstrated where fruit and truck shipping has 
reached its highest state of perfection is where an association exists, and 
this fact alone is sufficient to encourage organization for protection and 
mutual profits. 

By the increased acreage of the members, carloads may be loaded more 
promptly of any one product, and this will induce buyers to come, and 
attract them to loading stations, as tliey have more confidence where an 
organization with its officers, sales agents and inspectors is in working 
order, besides seeds, box material and fertilizers may be bought in larger 
quantities, even in carlots, and this means lower prices and better goods, 
for no one will so readily impose on a well-organized up-to-date fruit and 
truck growers' association, as on an isolated shipper. 

An association having an inspector usually ships better goods, and the 
buyer and commission merchant readily understands this to be a fact, and 
will pay more attention to association shipments than he would to an indi- 
vidual spasmodic shipper, on whom he may depend on one day but not the 
next for the goods. The railroad companies, refrigerator and express 
companies always treat the affairs of a well-organized organization with 
more promptness and greater consideration; claim for overcharges, for 
damages by delay and decay are always more promptly settled, for "in 
union there is strength," and we observe this in every avenue of industry, 
so if there is one reason for organizing, we can easily find a dozen. 

It might be said, whether a person succeeds or fails in truck growing 
depends not upon the intelligence of the individual in question entirely, 
but upon the average degree of intelligence in his community. If the 
people in a community are sensible enough to organize and market the 



252 Benefit of Organization. 

products of the truck farm intelligently, they will succeed; unless they 
do this they will fail. In the South it is no longer a question of produc- 
ing, but entirely one of successfully disposing of that which is produced. 
Our experiment stations, assisted by specialists from the United States 
department of agriculture, and our Modern Guide, has succeeded in solv- 
ing nearly all of the problemsi of production that were not solved by the 
growers themselves, and exact information concerning the proper method 
of producing any crop can be had for the asking. There is no longer the 
slightest excuse for crop failure from any other cause than unfavorable 
weather conditions. The question of selling the product of the truck farm 
is one that has not yet been answered to the entire satisfaction of the 
growers. 

In considering the problem of how best to market the products of the 
fruit and truck farm, the first lesson the grower must learn is that the 
consumer at the other end of the line is entitled to every consideration; 
when they give their money to the dealer they want its equivalent in fresh, 
clean stock. They do not want to pay their money for badly-packed, poorly- 
assorted, under-ripe or over-ripe vegetables. And just as soon as they find 
that the stuff coming from any community is carelessly handled and dis- 
honestly packed, they are going to quit buying it; the retail merchant 
will no longer buy it from the commission merchant or wholesale produce 
dealer, and the shipper will get hard luck stories instead of nice account 
sales and substantial checks. Shippers of vegetables are too much inclined 
to lay all the blame for their failure upon the other fellow, and too often 
use a telescope hunting for their troubles when they could see them with 
the naked eye if they were not blinded by prejudice. 

Of course, it is very consoling to lay the blame upon the commission 
merchant, thus clearing ourselves from the charge of carelessness, and, in 
some cases, dishonesty. A good rule would be for the shipper to determine 
that he would not oiTer for sale that which he would not be willing to buy. 
When the shipper has digested the above features and has determined to 
put up good, clean stock, properly graded and packed, he has taken the 
first and most important step in the successful solution of the market 
problem, but it does not end there. It is only the very early and high- 
priced product of the truck farm that can be profitably shipped in less 
than carload lots. The difference between the transportation rate by 
express and the transportation rate in carload lots by freight will make 
a very handsome profit of itself. Very few truck farmers in this state 
grow stuff in sufficient quantity to ship carload lots. In order to secure the 
advantages of carload rates eacii comnmnity should have an organization 



He lie /if of Or(/ttniz(((i()ii. 253 

ro co-operate in marketing its truck crop, thus putting the small producer 
in ] osition to do a wholesale business. 

A truck growers' association in order to be successful must be organized 
as a business institution. It should be incorporated with a capital stock 
sufticient to make it financially responsible for the contracts it msiy enter 
into. Following the principle of giving full value for every dollar received, 
a truck growers' association that is known to be financially responsible for 
its contracts and managed by people whose standing for business integrity 
is above question, can always make track sales at good prices if any demand 
exists for that which they offer to the trade. A wholesale produce dealer 
does not car^ Id purchase stock of this character from irresponsible people 
unless he has a representative on the ground to inspect the stock before 
it moves. But if they know the people with whom they are doing business 
are good, both morally and legally, they are willing to buy without seeing 
the stock. 

In organizing a truck growers' association due care should be used in 
the selection of people who will administer its affairs, and it should be 
borne in mind that patriots willing to serve their country without com- 
pensation are few and far between, and, usually, persons make such propo- 
sitions expecting to get something somewhere sometime. Therefore, it is 
wise to know just what they are going to start with, and to pay the em- 
ployes of the association reasonable wages for the services rendered. It 
will pay an association, well to hire the best man that can be had. 

The Southwestern Onion Growers of Texas, with headquarters at -San 
Antonio, Texas, pay their general manager eight thousand dollars a year 
to market their onions, and it has paid them to do it. 

A step further in working out the market problem would be after each 
community had perfected its local organizations to have an association of 
organizations for the purpose of avoiding over-stocked markets and to 
bring about the proper distribution of products of various communities. 
Several attempts have been made in the South to do this, but so far none 
of them have succeeded, and the result is needless competition and fre- 
quent glutted markets. However, when one considers that the truck crop 
of the South is produced by some 400,000 people, each one having more 
or less original ideas about marketing that crop, the difficulty of bringing 
about such an organization will be understood. It is within the limits of 
the possible that effective state organizations will some day materialize. 

Organization is also necessary for the reason that individual and se])ar- 
ate action in marketing is so expensive that it consumes the profits. The 

17 



■354 How to Organize an Association . 

1 roducer must ship in small lots at high express rates and must entrust 
the selling to commission merchants who are not always watchful of his 
interest or honest in making returns. Satisfactory results are obtaine<i 
only when shipments from a community are large enough to make up 
car lots to warrant either the maintenance of direct representative- in 
the principal markets or the taking of daily telegraphic reports nf condi- 
tions and nrices in order to direct the supplies to the placPb where they 
are most in demand. Indeed, when truck growing becomes well estab- 
lished in a ccmmuniiy the buyers go there and the farmer is relieved of 
all the details of shipping, because he sells his produce on the farm or at 
the railway station. Even then, however, organization is still necessary 
as a medium of information and co-operation, for the fruit and truck busi- 
ness requires quick information and action in order to obtain the best 
results, and these are practically impossible by the individual operating 
alone. 

No part of the South has a monopoly of fruits and vegetables. The 
southern sections have an advantage in earliness, but there is a sufficient 
demand later for the northern sections to supply. The eastern sections 
are especially adapted to certain varieties of fruit, but other varieties will 
gro-u- as well in the west, and nearly all the vegetables flourish equally in 
all sections of the South. 



HOW TO ORGANIZE A FRUIT AND TRUCK GROWERS' 
ASSOCIATION. 

The usual plan is for some interested and progressive citizens to issue 
ja call through the medium of the local newspaper, or other means, to 
notify the community of the purposed meeting to be held at the court 
house, school house or any public place for the meeting, on a published 
date. When the meeting is assembled someone familiar with the subject 
may state the object of the meeting, select a chairman, and, after a few 
discussions on the object, proceed to elect a president, vice president, sec- 
retary and directors. The next order of things would be to adopt a con- 
stitution and by-laws, and, to assist the meeting, which would also con- 
sume much time, we publish below a constitution and by-laws which have 
proven very satisfactory in many associations in the South, such alteratioQ 
or changes may be made to conform with the wishes of the members, also 
the question of incorporating or not should be thoroughly discussed. 



CONSTITUTION" AND BY-LAWS OF A TRUCK GEOWERS' 

ASSOCIATION. 

(Compiled by T. G. Tliomas, Editor Southern Shippers Guide, Houston, 

Texas.) 

PREAMBLE. 

For the purpose of furthering the various truck-growing industries of 
our country, and the gdvancement of all other industries that may be inci- 
dentally connected therewith, we bind ourselves together under the title 

of „ Truck Growers' Association, and 

adopt the following: 

CONSTITUTION. 

ARTICLE T. 

This association shall be known as "The._ „ -Truck 

Growers' Association." 

ARTICLE II. 

All persons interested in the subject of truck growing may become mem- 
bers of this society by paying annually to the treasurer such sum as may 
be provided by the By-Laws of this society; provided, that all ladies may 
become members. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section 1. The officers of the society shall be a president, vice-president, 
secretary, treasurer and executive committee, consisting of five, of which 
the president and vice-president shall be ex-officio members. 

Sec. 2. The president shall exercise a general superintendence over 
the affairs of the society; preside at all meetings of the same; draw all 
orders on the Treasurer as directed by the society; call meetings of the 
society or executive committee when deemed necessary; he shall be ex- 
officio president of the executive committee. 

Sec. 3. The vice-president shall assist the president, and in his ab- 
sence perform his duties, and be ex-officio member of the executive com- 
mittee. 

Sec. 4. The secretary shall keep full and complete minutes of the so- 
ciety and the proceedings of the executive committee. He shall receive 
and safely keep all books, periodicals, stationery, seeds and other like prop- 
erty of the society, subject to its order; shall correspond as may be neces- 
sary with all persons or societies, as the welfare of the society may de- 



256 Association, Constitution and By-Laws. 

marid. He shall report all proceedings of the executive committee to the 
society at its first meeting thereafter. He shall countersign all orders 
drawn upon the treasurer by the president, under the direction of the so- 
ciety. 

Sec. 5. The treasurer shall receive all moneys due to the society; shall 
keep a just and true account of the same, from what source received, and 
pay out tlie same upon the order of the president, countersigned by the 
secretary. At the annual meetings of the society on the first Saturday of 
August in each year (or oftener if required by the executive committee) 
he shall make a full and complete report of all receipts and disbursements, 
and at the expiration of his term of office turn over all books, papers and 
all money or other property belonging to the society to his successor in 
office. The executive committee may require the treasurer, before entering 
upon the discharge of the duties of his office, to enter into a bond, with 
sufficient security, to be approved by the president of the society, in such 
sum as the executive committee may deem necessary, conditioned for the 
faithful performance of the duties required of him in this section. 

Sec. 6. The executive committee shall assist and advise the officers in 
the discharge of their duties, and '^'^ — -^ ^^T-form such other duties as 
may be required of them by the By-Laws of the society. 

Sec. 7. The vice-president shall collect data concerning the state of 
truck growing, and report same in person at each regular meeting of this 
society, and work up a more general interest in our society by securing 
more members thereto. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The officers of this society shall be elected by ballot or acclamation, as 
the president sees fit, from among its members, for the term of one year. 
The annual election shall be held at the regular meeting of the society on 
the first Saturday in August of each year, when the general business of 
the society shall be transacted. Vacancies may be filled at any meeting 
of the society. 

ARTICLE V. 

The regular meeting of this society shall be held on the first Saturday of 
each designated month, at 2 o'clock p. m., at such place as the society may 
select. 

ARTICLE VI. 

A majority of the members of the society shall constitute a quorum at 
any meeting, and three members of the executive committee are author- 
ized to transact business at any meeting of the committee duly called. 



Association. Constitution and liif-Lairs. 257 

Special meetings of the society or executive committee may be held by 
order of the president or any three of the executive committee on one 
week's notice to all members of the society or the board (as the case may 
be), given personally through the postoffice, or by posting at three different 
places, one of which shall be the court house door. Adjourned meetings 
may be held from time to time as the society may determine. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The funds of this society shall not be appropriated for any purpose 
without a vote of the members present at any regular meeting of the society. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

The society may have such standing committees as shall be provided 
for by the By-Laws. 

ARTICLE IX. 

This Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of all the mem- 
bers of the society present at any regular meeting; provided, that notice 
of the intentional amendment shall have been given at least one month 
prior to any action taken thereon. 

ARTICLE X. 

The meetings of this society shall be governed by the parliamentary 
rules used in deliberative bodies. 



ORDEE OF BUSINESS. 

1. Reading of minutes of last meeting. 

2. Report of executive committee. 

3. Report of standing committees. 
1. Essays, or subjects for discussion. 
5. Discussion. 

G. Old business. 

7. New business. 

8. Report of special committees. 

9. Adjournment. 



BY-LAWS. 



Section 1. All applications for membership must be accompanied by 
the membership fee, together with one year's dues, in advance; and the 



25(8 Parliamentary Law. 

membership fee is hereby fixed at fifty cents, and the annual dues at twen- 
ty-five cents. 

See. 2. All discussion must be addressed to the president and must 
be confined to the question before the meeting. 

Sec. 3. Any member desiring to address the meeting upon any ques- 
tion must first receive recognition from the chair; failing to do this he 
must resume his seat. 

Sec. 4. Any member having voted upon any question with the ma- 
jority may move its reconsideration. 

Sec. 5. All questions, unless provided for in the Constitution and By- 
Laws, shall be decided by a majority vote of the members present. 

Sec. 6. Every rule that may be adopted by this association shall remain 
in force until suspended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at 
any regular meeting. 

Sec. 7. A motion to adjourn is always in order unless a motion is pend- 
ing that must be decided without debate. 

Sec. 8. Cushing's Manual shall be authority upon all questions not 
provided for in the Constitution and By-Jjaws. 



PARLIAMENTAEY LAW. 

Every body assembled for the purpose of deliberation finds it necessary, 
both for its proper organization and to facilitate its proceedings, either 
to adopt special rules for the regulation of such proceedings or to act 
upon those which are generally accepted as the ordinary rules of parlia- 
mentary practice. The special rules which any assembly may form for 
its guidance and government supersede, in all points which they relate, 
the common parliamentary laws, leaving the latter in full force in alJ 
other respects. 

The following is a synopsis of the generally accepted laws of parlia- 
mentary practice in the country: 

ADJOURNMENT. 

1. A motion to adjourn is always in order. 

2. It is not debatable. 

3. Cannot be amended, except there is no other business before the 
meeting. 

4. Some proceeding must intervene before a second motion to adjourn 
can be entertained. 



Parliameniary Law. 859 

5. It stops, when carried, the further consideration at that time of 
any question which was pending ^hen it was made. 

G. The main question can be referred to in discussion, if the motion 
to adjourn involves its merits. 

7. IJeconsideration not -allowed. 

8. Cannot be entertained while anyone has the floor. 

9. Adjournment to a particular time may be amended or reconsidered. 

AMENDMENTS. 

1. To be entertained, must be germane to the original motion, though 
they may be directly opposed to its intent. 

2. Are debatable. 

.3. May be amended once. 

4. May be reconsidered. 

5. Are put before the main question. 

AMENDMENT TO AMENDMENT. 

1. Is debatable. 

2. Cannot be further amended. 

3. May be reconsidered, 

4. Must be voted on before the first amendment or original motion. 

5. Amendments may be surperseded by a motion to postpone or to 
commit. 

Amendments are generally introduced when the assembly is satisfied 
with the subject-matter of the original motion, but dissatisfied with some 
of its parts, or with the form in which it is presented. But amendments 
are admissible w^hich entirely alter the nature of the original proposition, 
from the fact that a motion, when once stated by the chair, is the prop- 
erty of the house, and it is the privilege of the assembly to alter it to 
any extent it may see fit. 

They are sometimes adopted as a means of defeating the original 
motion, by extending its principle, and thus its absurdity so clearly that 
the house will not agree to it. 

Sometimes the mover of the original proposition accepts the proposed 
amendment, and, if no one objects, the amendment is embraced in the 
original proposition, but if there is objection a motion is necessary to 
obtain the consent of the assembly; otherwise it must be put separately 
as an amendment. The mover, however, has a right to move an amend- 
ment to his own motion. 

The manner in which propositions are generally amended is either by 



2 GO FarJiamcnkiry Lair. 

striking out certain words, adding words, or by both striking out and 
inserting. 

Amendments may be amended once, but no more. Thus, if a motion 
be made that A, B. C. D represent a certain thing, and an amendment 
be made to strike out D, which is further amended by a motion to strike 
out C, another amendment to strike out B would be in order. The 
question is taken first on the amendments. If the amendments be carried 
in the affirmative the question is then on the original proposition as 
amended. If the decision on the amendment be negative, the question 
recurs on the main proposition. If the decision on the second amendment 
be affirmative the first amendment must be put as amended, and so with 
the main question. 

In putting a motion for striking out words, the parliamentary form is, 
"Shall the words stand as part of the main question?" 

In case of ihe rejection of an amendment to insert certain words, a 
motion to insert the same words, or any part thereof, is not in order; 
but a motion to insert the same words with others is. Or, when a motion 
is carried to insert certain words, it will not be in order to move to 
strike out the same words, or a part of them, but a motion to strike' out 
the same words with others is permissible. 

When a motion is made to strike out certain words and to substitute 
others, any member may call for a division of the question. When a 
division is in order, action is first taken on the motion to strike out, 
which is put in the usual form, viz: "Shall the original motion stand?" 
And if the decision be in the negative the question is put on the insertion, 
which may also be amended. When a negative decision is given on a 
motion to strike out and insert without the question be divided it is not in 
order to have the same motion made again. If an affirmative decision 
be given on a motion to strike out and insert, it would not be in order 
to mj5ve to strike out the words inserted, or insert words struck out. 

' ■ COMMITMENT. 

II ■ ' 

1. Motion to commit may be debated. 
.2., , Can be amended. 
,3. , May be reconsidered. 

4.. Is not superseded by the previous question or postponement. 
, ,$,. Has precedence of a motion to amend. 

1)1. ii;;' ■:',. -.''nnj n.j :. 

COMMITTEES. 

^f;Co,flpiWitte#s i:>gfft;.jij§^ally :,of, three kinds — special, standing, and of tlie 



l'(irliiuiiont(ini Lair. 2(51 

wliole. A special coniinittee is one selected for a particular purpose. A 
standing committee is one to which is referred all matters of a like nature, 
as tl'.e committee of ways and means; it is a permanent body. A committee 
of the whole is composed of all the members of the house. 

The object of the committees is to facilitate business by dividing it 
among the members, which can thus be more readily accomplished than 
by the entire body giving their attention to the details of each particular 
subject. 

Committees are sometimes given full powers and sometimes their author- 
ity is restricted, both depending on the instructions given out by ths 
assembly. They are appointed by the chair of the house, and occasionally 
by ballot. When nominated by the house the names are voted on singly, 
and when by ballot they are chosen either singly or all together. 

The mover and seconder of a motion to constitute a committee are 
generally by courtesy appointed to serve on it, and the person first named 
usually acts as its chairman, though every committee has a right to elect 
its own chairman, who makes the report to the meeting. A majority of 
the members of a committee is necessary for a quorum. 

The committee may meet when and where it pleases, and adjourn from 
time to time as it sees fit, unless otherwise ordered by the assembly. In 
committee meeting the same parliamentary forms obtain as in the regular 
assembly, except in committee of the whole. 

The chairman of the committee, in making the report, reads it to the 
meeting and delivers it and all papers connected therewith to the clerk 
or secretary. When the report has been read and accepted the committee 
is discharged, except the report be recommitted. 

It is customary to put the question on the acceptance of the report 
without formality of a motion. The acceptance of a report is not to be 
confounded with its adoption, the latter being a matter afterwards to be 
considered by the assembly. 

COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE. 

When it is resolved to go into committee of the whole the chairman of 
the assembly as a rule calls upon some member to act as chairman of the 
committee, and the secretary or clerk is appointed by the committee. The 
president of the assembly is supposed to remain in the committee till it 
rises or breaks up for want of a quorum, so as to be able to take the chair 
when the assembly is called to order. 

Tlie committee of the whole does not adjourn, it merely rises, and a 
motion that the committee "do now rise" is made when the labors of the 



262 Parliamentary Law. 

committee are ended. If not completed at one session the motion is "that 
the committee do now rise and ask leave to sit again." 

The previous question is not allowed in committee of the whole, but 
members can speak as often as the chair will recognize them ; and no 
business can be referred to a subordinate committee; neither can a member 
be punished or expelled for a breach of order, but must be reported to 
the assembly. 

The chairman of the committee makes the report to the meetings which 
is received and acted on in the same manner as the report of any other 
committee. 

TO COMMIT. 

A matter may be referred to a committee without instructions. Instruc- 
tions, if given, must be followed; if none be given, the committee have 
full powers. This motion can be amended, and, if first made, is not super- 
seded by the previous question or postponement. Eecommit is the term 
apjjlied when the matter has been once in the hands of a committee. 

chairman's decision. 
To appeal from: 

1. Is debatable, cannot be amended, but may be reconsidered. 

2. Is always in order, even when another has the floor. 

DEBATE. 

To close — Is not debatable, but may be amended or reconsidered. 

To limit — Is not debatable, but may be amended or reconsidered. 

Order of — The presiding officer cannot participate in debate. Should 
he wish to do so he must ask the vice-president or some other member 
to take the chair. From the chair he can only state general matters of 
fact within his knowledge and decide points of order. 

1'he mover, as a rule if he rises to speak, is given the preference, and 
if two or more claim the floor it is customary to give the preference to 
one opposed to the motion. A member in resigning the floor to accommo- 
date another, even for a moment, is not entitled to it again, though it is 
customary to concede it to him. 

Members, in speaking, are not to refer to others by name, but to deslg- 
note them as "the previous speaker," "the gentleman on my right or left," 
or in some such way as would indicate the party referred to. 

Decorum in — Common decency, as well as general rules of order, requires 
that a member be accorded a courteous attention while speaking and that 
all hissing and unnecessary calling for the question and ironical cries 



Parliamentary Law. 263 

of "Hear, hear," are decidedly out of order. A person with any discern- 
ment can readily tell whether the assembly be inclined to listen to him, 
and if he find they be not, prudence would suggest that he resume his 
seat as soon as he consistently can without making too sudden collapse. 
Should any member or members persist in disturbing the meeting after 
being called to order he may be called on by name by the chair to with- 
draw, and the assembly decides what action shall be taken. As a rule the 
efforts of the chair to preserve order are supported by the assembly, if not, 
the self-respecting chairman will vacate his position. 

DIVISION OF A QUESTION. 

When a motion is composed of two or more parts which are capable of 
being considered separately it is usual to amend the original motion by 
calling for a division of the question or by motion, regularly seconded, 
that the question be divided. 

A party moving to divide a question should state how he desires the 
division made. 

LAY ON THE TABLE. 

1. Is not debatable. 

2. Cannot be amended. 

3. Supersedes all the other subsidiary motions. 

4. Cannot be reconsidered when the vote is affirmative. 

This motion supersedes all other subsidiary ones. It is used either to 
finally dispose of a matter or to lay it aside for an indefinite time. An 
affirmative decision removes all other motions from before the house; a 
negative allows business to proceed as before the motion was made. To 
renew debate on the subject tabled, a motion to "take the table^' properly 
made and carried, opens the same question. 

To take from the table — 

1. Is not debatable, nor can it be amended. 

2. A vote in the negative may be reconsidered. 

MOTION. 

1. Must, as a general rule, be seconded. The Massachusetts legisla- 
ture does not now require a motion to be seconded. 

2. Must be stated by the chair before they are open for discussion or 
amendment. 

3. Principal and subsidiary motions cannot be made together. 

4. Can only be withdrawn by consent of the house, after being stated. 

5. Original motions may be superseded by motion "to table" a ques- 
tion of privilege, a question of order, to commit, or to amend. 



204 Parlmmcntary Law. 

(). Are not in order unless the maker is recognized by tlie chair. 

Motions are propositions introduced by members. They are either 
principal or subsidiary. 

Subsidiary motions relate to the original or principal motion, and are 
used to facilitate the disposal of the latter. The most common are — to 
lay on the table, for the previous question, to postpone,' to commit, and 
to amend. (See notice of them under their respective heads.) 

A motion after being properly made and seconded is then stated by the 
chair and discussion is in order, and no other motion can be received 
except a subsidiary one. 

If there be several subsidiary motions in addition to the principal ques- 
tion before the house at the same time, the subsidiary motions are first 
settled in the order of their precedence, viz. : to lay on the table, on the 
question to commit, on the question to amend, and finally on the main 
question. 

Principal and subsidiary motions cannot be made at the same time. 

DUTIES OF orncERS. 

President — The following are the principal duties of the president: To 
call the members to order at the time appointed ; to announce the busi- 
ness in its regular order; to receive and put to vote all motions properly 
presented, and declare the result; to keep order; to receive and announce 
all communications; to sign all necessary documents; to rule on points of 
order; to appoint members of committees (when so directed); to repre- 
sent the will of the assembly, and look after its interests. 

Vice-President — ^If there be one or more vice-presidents it is the duty 
of one of them to preside in the absence of the president, and if there be 
none a temporary chairman is elected, in the choice of whom the secre- 
tary carries on the proceedings. 

Secretary — The secretary's duties are to make a record of all things 
done in the assembly; to call the roll; to read all papers; to notify all 
committees appointed, and of the business referred to them ; to sign such 
papers as may be necessary; to take charge and care of all the papers be- 
longing to the assembly. 

ORDERS OF THE DAY. 

Orders of the day are the questions specially assigned for a particTilar 
day, and a motion calling for them has precedence of all others. A nega- 
tive decision keeps the question which was ponding when the call was made 
still before the house, while an affirmative decision removes it. 

1. Are put in preference to all subsidiary and incidental motions. 



Parliamenfary Lnir. 265 

2. The motion calling for them is not debatable, nor can it be amended, 
but it may be reconsidered. 

3. Qliis motion must be entertained, even though another has the floor. 

ORDER OF BUSINESS. 

All organizations have an established order of business, and sometimes 
make special orders in relation to particular subjects. When a motion is 
made to consider a proposition made up of several paragraphs it is read 
paragraph by paragraph ; amendments, if any, offered on each paragraph 
when read. When all have been thus gone through the question is taken 
on the paper as a whole, whether amended or not. 

On a paper being reported back from a committee to which it had been 
referred, the amendments only are read in their order until all are adopted 
or rejected before any other amendment is in order, except an amendment 
to an amendment. Wlien the committee amendments have been acted on 
and amendments, if any, proposed by the house passed on, the final ques- 
tion is on the adoption of the paper as whole. 

Introduction of Business — When a member wishes to make or second -i 
motion, or make any statement to the meeting, he must address the chair, 
and by >i?n be Tccognized by name; he is then said to have the floor, and 
nny proceed. Jf two or more members rise to address the chair at the 
same time the chair recognizes him whose voice he first heard ; and if his 
decision be questioned the sense of the house is taken. 

A petition from outside parties is usually presented by some member, 
who states the substance of it and moves that it be received. Usually, if 
there be no objection, it is received without the formality of a motion. 
After being read by the clerk or secretary it is then the property of the 
meeting, to be disposed of as they see fit. 

QUESTIONS OF ORDER. 

Questions of order are those which relate to some breach of the rules. 
When a point of order is raised, it is decided by the chair without discus- 
sion, which decision may be appealed from and passed on by the house. 
The chair in stating the question on the appeal, says, "Shall the decision 
of the chair stand?'"' And in the debate, if any, which follows, the chair 
can participate. 

If any member has the floor, he cannot be interrupted except by a call 
to order, and, after the point of order is decided, he may be alloAred to 
continue. A member, when rising to interrupt another, must state whether 
it is on a point of order, a question of privilege, or for the orders of the 



26G Parliamentary Lair. 

day, and it is usual for the chair to recognize such persons and ask them 
to "state the point," etc. In the meantime the person interrupted takes 
his seat and remains there till the question is settled, when he can resume. 

It is considered in bad taste to be too punctilious in making points of 
order, and some members, in many organizations, often do so more from 
a desire to display their knowledge of parliamentary laws than to facili- 
tate business, and the frequent "rising to a point of order" by the same 
member generally causes him to be viewed as a parliamentary "crank." 

In most organizations, and even in our legislature assemblies, strict 
adherence to parliamentary forms is not followed in all its minor points; 
the essential aim and object of such forms being to arrive at conclusions 
and to register the will of the majority in as commonsense and equitable 
a manner as possible. And in this connection we would advise those who 
are ambitious to shine as parliamentarians and who fancy they are destined, 

"The applause of listening senates to command," 
lo keep their knowledge of the subtleties of the laws of debate from 
offervescing, and permit business to proceed if no material right is being 
infringed. 

READING OF PAPERS. 

1. When bearing on a question before the house any member has a 
right to call for a reading. 

2. WHien relating to original matter, must be voted on. 

3. Is not debatable and cannot be amended, but may be reconsidered. 

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS. 

1. Can be debated or amended. 

2. Takes precedence of all subsidiary motions when made first, except 
to lay on the table. 

The moving of the previous question, in this country, is generally for 
the suppression of discussion of the main question. It cannot be moved in 
committee of the whole. After being moved and seconded the chairman 
asks, "Shall the main question be now put?" And if decided affirmatively 
the main question is put immediately and without debate. If the decision 
be negative it operates differently in different assemblies. In our national 
congress it disposes of the main question for the day, while the legislatures 
of Lfassaehusetts and New York leave the original question still open for 
discussion. 

POSTPONEMENT. 

1. Is debatable. 

2. May be amended or reconsidered. 



PdrHdniriitary Lair. 207 

3. Can not l)o su} erseded by motions for the ])rcvious questions, to 
commit or amend. 

4, Whether postponement be for a definite or indefinite time, the three 
preceding rules apply. 

DEFINITE POSTPONE.VENT. 

A motion to postpone to a certain day, if decided affirmatively, removes 
the main question from before the house; but if the decision be negative, 
the suppression of the original motion may then be brought about by the 
previous question. 

INDEFINITE POSTPONEMENT. 

An affirmative decision on this motion entirely suppresses the original 
proposition, so that it can not be renewed; a negative decision leaves the 
question before the house. 

PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS. 

1. Can not be debated or amended, but may be reconsidered. 

2. Take precedence over all others. 

Privileged questions are those of greater importance to the assembly 
than the one under discussion. They have precedence of all other ques- 
tions, and consist of motions to adjourn, questions relative to the rights 
of members, and \hose calling for orders of the day. 

PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS. 

1. To adjourn. 

2. To lay on the table. 

3. For previous questions. 

4. To postpone to a certain time. 

5. To commit. 

6. To amend. 

7. To postpone indefinitely. 

Incidental questions embrace question or order, motion for leave to 
withdraw a motion, to suspend a rule, or to ask for the reading of papers, 
or an amendment of an amendment. They have precedence of the ques- 
tion which they arise. 

TAKING THE QUESTION. 

After all who seem desirous have spoken on a question, the chair asks 
the assembly if tliov are ready for the question, and if no one responds, or 
"Question" is cried by one or more members, the chair says, "All who are 
in favor of the motion answer 'aye.' " He then says, "As many as are 
opposed say 'no.' " And according as the ayes or noes predominate he says 



'2GS Parliamentary Law. 

the ayes have it, or the noes have it, or it is not a vote. If he ha? a 
doubt as to which side has a majority, or if having decided, a member 
doubts the result as announced, the chair may call on the members to 
rise and stand till they are counted on both sides; or he may divide the 
house, ranging affirmatives on one side and negatives on the other. Should 
a vote result in a tie, the chair has the casting vote, and while solving a 
doubt no other business is in order. 

YEAS AND NAYS. 

On taking what is called yeas and nays, it is stated by the chair thus: 
"As many as are in favor of, etc., will, when their names are called, an- 
swer 'aye,' and those opposed will answer 'no.' " The clerk or secretary calls 
the roll and marks the answers, and reports to the chair, who announces 
the result to the meeting. 

Until the negative of a question is put, it is in order for a member to 
speak, or make any subsidiary motion; but when taking the yeas and 
nays, both being taken at the same time, neither debate nor a motion is 
in order. 

RECONSIDERATION. 

A vote already passed may be reconsidered, except a motion to adjourn; 
and if the moton to reconsider be carried, the original motion is before 
the house. 

1. Can be debated together with the original motion, but can not be 
amended or reconsidered. 

"3. If carried in the affirmative, it opens the main question for dis- 
cussion. 

RECOMMIT. 

Can be debated, amended or reconsidered. 

SUSPENSION OF RULES. 

1. Is not debatable, nor can it be amended or reconsidered. A sus- 
pension of a rule may be called for by a motion regularly made and sec- 
onded, and has precedence of the original motion. It is usually made 
for the purpose of allowing some business to proceed which some rule of 
the assembly prohibits. 

QUORUM. 

In all organized bodies it is necessary that certain number of members, 
called a quorum, should be present before any business can be transacted. 
This is considered essential to the end that the matter decided may fairly 



To Hold Meetings of Fruit and Truck Growers. 269 

represent the will of the organization. The number necessary for a 
quorum may be fixed as the assembly wills ; and if, at any time during the 
meeting, the members present fall below the required number, the meeting 
must be adjourned by the chair. 

SPEAKING. 

Matter of Speaking — A member who has the floor is supposed to con- 
fine himself to tlie subject under discussion, and is not allowed to intro- 
duce irrelevant or extraneous matter, and it is the duty of the chair to call 
him to order, and request him to speak to the qviestion. He is to use no 
personalities, nor any language reflecting on previous determinations of 
the assembled, except the pending motion be for annulling such prior 
legislature. The consequence of measure may be shown in detail and 
denounced, but the motives of its advocates can not be impugned. 

Times of Speaking — As a general rule, a member is not allowed to 
speak more than once on a question till all others who are desirous of 
speaking have done so; but if incidental or subsidiary motions be intro- 
duced in connection with it, they are privileged to speak again. The 
mover and seconder may, if they so desire, speak to the question when the 
motion is made and seconded, but are thus shut off from being again 
recognized till all others have spoken. A member may, however, rise to 
give an explanation, or to clear a matter of fact, or set liimself right, if 
his statements are being misrepresented. 

MOTIONS TO SUBSTITUTE. 

Can be debated, amended or reconsidered. 

WITHDRAVAL OF A MOTION. 

1. Is not debatable, but may be amended or reconsidered. 

2. Must have a unanimous vote before it can be withdrawn. 



TO HOLD MEETINGS OF FEUIT AND TEUCK GEOWEES. 

As a rule local fruit and truck growers' meetings are not very w^ell at- 
tended; this is due to the fact that the meetings are usually dry and without 
any special interest to a great many. The president and officers should en- 
deavor to arrange an interesting program. The members' wives and 
daughters should be encouraged to attend, as the subjects properly dis- 
cussed are always interesting to all who attend, especially when some reg- 
ular routine is inaugurated; for this purpose we offer a few suggestions 
which may prove of considerable value to increase attendance. 



270 To Hold Meetings of Fruit and Truck Growers. 

RULES OF MEETINGS. 

1. Call to order by the president. 

2. Opening by a few social remarks by the president. 

3. Music, either instrumental or by suitable songs. 

4. Eecitations. 

5. Debate on some live question. 

6. Three-minute talks by members. 

7. Business, 

8. Good of the association. 

9. Closing song. 

. A FEW LIVE QUESTIONS FOR DEBATES. 

Selling for cash at loading station vs. consigning. 
Market conditions and how to keep posted. 
Seeds, what varieties succeed best. 
How to construct and make vegetable crates. 
The use of mail, telegraph and telephone for shippers. 
Grading fruit and vegetables. 

How) to harvest, pack and ship different fruits and vegetables. 
Pecan culture m the South. 
Peach culture; how to succeed. 
Native and wild grapes. 
Profits from the strawberry patch. 
Insects and spraying. 
Irrigation and drainage. 

What manures are especially adapted for different products. 
Fertilizers on Irish potatoes. 

Talks on establishing canning factories to use up the surplus. 
Broom factory. 

Benefiicial laws to fruit and truck growing and shipping. 
The problem of icing fruits and vegetables in transit. 
Poultry and profits on a fruit farm. 
Dairying and cream extractors. 

Bee keeping as a source of profit and bees as useful distributors of pol- 
len in the fruit garden. 



PART VII. 



CANNING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, EVAP- 
ORATING FRUITS, PICKLE FACTORY, BROOM 
FACTORY AND BROOM CORN CULTURE, 
FACTORIES ON THE FARM, LE- 
GUMINOUS AND FORAGE 
CROPS. 



CANNING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 

The establishment of canning factories througliout the South at points 
where fruits and vegetables are grown in sufficient quantities for shipping 
to markets has many advantages. 

First — Because the over-ripe, maimed or bruised fruits or vegetables, 
in place of waste may be converted into a source of profit. 

Second — In times of gluts in the markets of the perishable products, 
which must always occur with excessive freight or express rates, car short- 
age, the products may be saved with as much or even more profit than if 
they were shipped. 

Third — The establishment of canning factories secures independence 
to the shippers or association; the factory employs labor, keeps the money 
for canned goods at home and adds wealth and prosperity to any town or 
community. 

The demand at home and abroad for the canned goods is practically 
unlimited. Examine any grocery store in the South and the fact appears that 
over 90 per cent of all tlic canned fruits and vegetables were canned north 
of the Mason and Dixon line ; leaving out all other consideration, the saving 
of freight charges alone presents an interesting item, besides the South 
is the home of the fruits and vegetables, for where only one crop of vege- 
tables may be secured in the northern part of the United States and Can- 
ada, two, or even three crops may be harvested in the Southern States the 
very same season; indeed it would look reasonable if the South would sup- 
ply the entire North with both fresh and canned fruits and vegetables, 
and as the South further develops this will not be a mere imaginary dream, 
but an established fact. 

There is no reason why the cotton gin houses and machinery used in the 
fall and winter months for ginning cotton could not be used as canning 
factories to can the surplus during the spring and summer months, when 
otherwise the building and machinery would be idle and both would be 
kept in better condition by their use. 

Profits of Canning. 

The profits of canning fruits and vegetables depend somewhat on the size 
of the plant, home markets and freight rates for canning factories' acces- 
sories and supplies of tins, crates and also the price of labor. 

A CI ate or box of two dozen three-pound cans of peaches, pears, apples, 
plums, figs, grapes, strawberries or blackberries usually sell from $2.00 to 
$3.00 per crate or box, holding two dozen cans; the cost of crate and twenty- 



274 Canning Fruits and Vegetables. 

four tin cans and solder is about 50 cents; the profit on one thousand 
cans of fruit is about $35.00 after the fruit, labor, cans and crates are paid 
for; the profit on vegetables ranges from $20.00 to $30.00 per thousand. 
It must be borne in mind that the fruits and vegetables used in canning 
may in many seasons prove an entire loss in the absence of any canning 
factory. 

How TO Establish a Canning Factory. 

Wherever there is already a Fruit and Truck Growers' Association, the 
establishment of a canning factory is less difficult; the matter is taken 
up at the meeting and an incorporated company established with from 
$2,000 to $5,000 capital, the members of the association subscribing stock 
for which the fruits and vegetables may be furnished. Generally a lot is 
bought conveniently located near the depot and accessible to wagons and a 
suitable building erected. The next step would be to engage the services 
of some experienced canning expert as manager until the factory may be 
run by local talent. We admit there have been some failures reported, but 
in most cases these failures were due to the fact that the factories wer^? 
started on too big a scale, and, to elaborate, it is far more advisable to start 
the first year on a small scale until the wants of the canning factory and 
capacity is thoroughly understood. To run the factory part of the day and 
then wait until more produce arrives is conducive to failures, and that is 
just what happened to many factories that failed. Start small and increase 
the capacity as the occasion demands and no canning factory will or can fail. 

Home Canning. 

A home canning plant with the capacity of a few hundred cans per day 
may be established at a cost of $10.00; there are many excellent home 
canners on tbe market for the purpose. 

Cost of Canning. 

Canneries, as a commercial proposition, may be established at a cost, ex- 
clusive of buildings, from $250 to $2,000, as follows : 

Plant No. 1 — Capacity 2,000 Cans Per Day, Open Bath Process. 

One; 18-horsepower engine and fittings of piping to the tanks. 
One scalding- tank, diameter 36 inches, depth 24 inches. 
One exhaust tank, diameter 36 inches, depth 24 inches. 
One process tank, diameter 36 inches, depth 24 inches. 
Four scalding baskets. 



Canning Fruits and Vegetables. 275. 

Two exhaust crates, one-tier. 

Two process crates, two-tier. 

One perforated steam coil or cross for scalding tank. 

One perforated steam coil or cross for exhaust tank. 

One perforated steam coil or cross for process tank. 

One crane. 

One 30-gallon gasoline tank. 

One air gauge for gasoline tank. 

Two gasoline fire pots. 

One floor truck. 

Four capping steels. 

Four tipping coppers. 

One forging stake. 

One vise. 

One thermometer. 

One platform scale. 

Two can tongs. 

One syrup gauge. 

One hammer. 

Twenty-five buckets. 

Six capping trays, 2x2 feet. 

One packing table. 

One capping table, 3x8 feet. 

The above plant may be installed for $500.00. A building of two stories, 
24x48 feet, would be a very suitable one for this size canning plant; the 
boiler may be placed at either end of the building, or better, in a boiler room 
adjoining; the first floor to be used for the process room and the second 
floor for storage of empties and supplies. 

To operate this size plant would require fifteen hands ; eight peelers, four 
packers, one processor, one capper and one foreman. Outside the foreman, 
processor and capper, the help may be unskilled labor, mainly women or 
children. 

Plant No. 3. 

Estimated cost of machinery for a plant of 5,000 cans capacity per day, 
complete, $650. 

Plant No. 3. 

Estimated cost of machinery complete for a plant of 10,000 cans ca- 
pacity per day, $1,000. 



376 Canning Fruits and Vegei,ables. 

Plant No. 4. 

Estimated' amount and cost of machinery for outfit of 20,000 cans ca- 
pacity per day, complete, $2,000. 

All of the above outfits are capable of canning all fruits and vegetables 
in the most satisfactory and up-to-date manner. 

For particular information about prices, etc., of all canneries, and 
where machinery may be bought readers of this book are cordially invited 
to apply to our company, the Thomas-Wilson Publishing Company, 900 
Main street, Houston, Texas. 

There are also many accessories used in large canning factories, such as 
the pea hulling machine, rotary pea separator, corn cutting machine, corn 
silking machine, corn steaming and can filling machine, can dipping ma- 
chine, exhausting machine, tomato and pumpkin filler, pumpkin peelers, 
pumpkin grater, tomato scalder, apple and peach parers, cocoanut and pine- 
apple graters, cherry seeders, apple corers and quarterers, pea sieves, 
pea blanchers, peeling knives ; all of the above are labor saving devices and 
reduce the cost of canning; the work may be run by steam power or by 
hand. 

The Manufacturing of Cans. 

All large ' canning factories manufacture! their own cans, which is a de- 
cided saving on freight rates, as an empty can takes up as much room in 
a freight car as a full can. Machines for making cans, of sufficient ca- 
pacity to satisfy ordinary canning plants can be bought complete for $500. 

This machine will make two-pound or three-pound cans, which are 
mostly used. 

A box of tin plate costs about $4,50 per box and will make 270 three- 
pound cans or 370 two-pound cans. The value of the cans ranges from 
$1.70 to $2.20 per hundred cans. 

Standard sizes of cans are : One-pound can, diameter 2% inches, height 
4 inches; two-pound can, diameter 3 7-16 inches, height 4 9-16 inches; 
three-pound can, diameter 4% inches, height 4% inches. 

Labels. 

There is nothing so conducive to the quick selling of canned goods as 
the bright and handsome labels on the cans; of late the art of lithograph- 
ing has advanced so rapidly that the most handsome and highly colored 
labels may be secured at a nominal cost, and there is no better way to 
advertise canned goods. It is also well for canneries to establish a trade 
mark and have the labels copyrighted; ail of these items secure success and 
profits -to the canneries. 



How to Can Fruits. 277 

The best fruits and most commonly used for canning purposes are apples, 
apricots, blackberries, cherries, currants, grapes, peaches, pears, pineapples,, 
plums and strawberries. 

The hest vegetables and most commonly used for canning purposes are 
asparagus, string beans, lima beans, sweet corn, okra, okra and tomatoes, 
peas, pumpkins, squash, succotash, sweet potatoes and tomatoes. 



HOW TO CAN FRUITS. 
Apples. 

Apples for canning should be pared and cored; this can be done by hand 
or steam power. After the apples are pared, cored and quartered, or halved, 
the apples are packed as solid as possible in the cans, which are then filled 
with water and can exhausted five minutes at 216 degrees. 

Apricots. 

Apricots should be carefully wiped (not pared), halved and seeds re- 
moved, packed as solid as possible, without bruising, in the cans, which are 
then filled with heavy cane or sugar syrup. Exhaust cans five minutes 
at 216 degrees. 

Blackberries. 

Blackberries should be spread out on the table and all leaves and trash 
removed (not washed) ; they are then placed in the cans and filled with 
•either cold or hot water. Exhaust can seven minutes at 216 degrees. 

Cherries. 

Cherries may be either pitted or canned whole ; the fruit should be thor- 
oughly ripe and cleaned by hand picking, removing all green fruit, leaves, 
€tc. The cherries are then placed in the can and the can filled with hot 
or cold syrup. Exhaust can seven minutes at 216 degrees. 

Currants. 

Currants should be spread out on the table and carefully picked over, 
removing all foreign matter, placed in the cans and the cans filled with 
hot or cold water. Exhaust can seven minutes at 216 degrees. 

Grapes. 

For canning, the stems of grapes are removed and the fruit carefully 
picked over, removing all tainted or inferior grapes, then placed in cans, 
filled with hot or cold water. Exhaust cans eight minutes at 216 degrees. 



378 How to Can Vegetables. 

Peaches. 

Peaches are the most popular of all fruits for canning purpose and are 
also the most profitable to can. The peaches after either pared or not, cut 
in proper sizes or whole, are placed in the can as solid as possible, without 
bruising, and the cans are filled with either water or syrup. Exhaust cans 
five minutes at 112 degrees. 

Pears. 

Pears, for canning, are either pared or not, cut in desirable pieces or 
canned whole. Place the pears snugly in the cans, fill with water or syrup. 
Exhaust cans six minutes at 216 degrees. 

Pineapples. 

Pineapples should b^ carefully grated, or sliced, removing all eyes and 
rind. Place the fruit in the can and fill with a heavy superior syrup. Ex- 
haust can ten minutes at 216 degrees. 

Plums. 

Plums may be pitted or canned whole; the fruit should be spread out 
on the table and all green or wormy fruit removed, placed in the can and 
either water or syrup applied. Exhaust cans five minutes at 216 degrees. 

Strawberries. 

In preparing for the can, strawberries are spread out on the table and 
all leaves, trash and green berries removed (not washed) ; the berries are 
then placed in the cans, which are then filled with either water or a light 
syrup. Exhaust can three minutes at 216 degrees. 

All fruits canned for the open bath allow twelve minutes at 216 degrees; 
closed bath allow five minutes at 250 degrees. 



VEGETABLES. 



The cans for asparagus usually open on the sides and after the stalks are 
carefully placed in the cans the vacuum is filled with slightly salty, either 
hot or cold water. Exhaust cans twelve minutes at 216 degrees. 

Closed tips allow twenty minutes at 250 degrees. 

Beans (String.) 

Beans for canning should be very carefully picked over, removing all 
the tough and old beans, leaves and trash; place the beans then in the 



How to Can Vegetables. 279 

strainer and dip into the scalding tank for four minutes, then fill the cans 
with the beans and add a weak brine. Exhaust cans twelve minutes at 216 
degrees. Closed top, forty minutes at 250 degrees. 

Beans (Lima.) 

After the lima beans are pulled by hand, place the beans in the cans and 
fill with weak brine. Exhaust cans ten minutes at 216 degrees. Closed 
top, thirty minutes' process at 250 degrees. 

Corn (Sweet.) 

The corn must be young and tender, the grains removed from the cob, 
placed in cans and filled with weak brine. Exhaust cans fifteen minutes 
at 316 degrees. Closed top process at 250 degrees. 

Okra. 

Preparing okra for the cans, all the tough and stringy okra must be re- 
moved and also the stems; blanch the okra twelve minutes in hot brine, fill 
then in cans and add new strong brine. Exhaust can ten minutes at 216 
degrees. Closed top process, twenty-five minutes at 250 degrees. 

Okra and Tomatoes. 

The okra is simply blanched like the foregoing description of canning 
okra, chopped up fine and added one-half in bulk to peeled tomatoes; add 
small quantity of water. Exhaust can ten minutes at 216 degrees. Open 
bath, allow thirty minutes at 216 degrees; closed top, fifteen minutes at 
250 degrees. 

Peas. 

The Marrowfat variety is the best pea for canning. Peas, for canning, 
are first shelled and then run through a separator, hand picked, removing 
all yellow and black-eyed ones, blanched in the pea blancher until the skin 
contracts, then packed in cans leaving] one inch clear in the cans for the 
swelling of the peas, fill the can then with a brine ; a little sugar added to 
the brine will improve the flavor. Exhaust can fifteen minutes at 216 
degrees. Closed top process, allow thirty minutes at 250 degrees. 

Pumpkins. 

If pumpkins are first lowered in the scalding tank five minutes, the 
peeling may be removed more easily. After the peeling is removed, slice, 
grate or wash, fill the can tight, use no water or sugar* Exhaust cajis 
twelve minutes at 216 degrees; open bath, thirty minutes at 216 degrees; 
closed top, fifteen minutes at 250 degrees. 



280 How to Can Vegetables. 

Squash. 

Squash are prepared for the can the same as pumpkin ; no water or liquor 
being used. Exhaust cans fifteen minutes at 216 degrees; open bath, thirty 
minutes at 216 degrees; closed top, allow fifteen minutes at 250 degrees. 

Succotash. 

Succotash is simply a mixture of corn and beans ; both ingredients should 
be young and tender and put in brine. Succotash is very popular and 
profitable to can. Exhaust cans ten minutes at 216 degrees; closed top, 
thirty minutes at 250 degrees. 

Sweet Potatoes. 

Cook the potatoes until nearly done, but yet firm; peel and cut the po- 
tatoes in halves and quarters. Exhaust cans ten minutes at 216 degrees; 
open bath twenty minutes at 216 degrees; closed top, ten minutes at 250 
degrees. 

Tomatoes, 

Like peaches, in the fruit line, tomatoes are the most popular in the 
vegetable line; while the price is never high, the profits are sure and rea- 
sonable. To prepare tomatoes they are lowered in a wire basket into the 
scalding tank until the skin becomes entirely loose. The tomatoes are 
then peeled and passed to the packing table, packed very solid in the cans 
and capped. Exhaust cans fifteen minutes at 216 degrees. For three- 
pound cans, open bath, 25 minutes, at 216 degrees; closed top, allow 15 
minutes at 250 degrees. For two-pound cans, five minutes less. 

Cases should be made to hold two dozen cans and each case stenciled with 
the name of the contents and a handsome label for the cases is also ad- 
visable. If the fruits or vegetables are canned in a superior manner, the 
name of tlie canning factory or place of canning marked on the cans and 
cases stimulates the demand. Superiority of honest canning is soon recog- 
nized and rewarded. 

Capping Solder. 

No. 1 is composed of 100 parts lead and seventy parts tin. 

iSTo. 2 is composed of 100 parts lead and eighty parts tin. 

No. 3 is composed of 100 parts lead and ninety parts tin. 

No. 4 is composed of 100 parts lead and 100 parts tin. 

For soldering fluid take muriatic acid and add zinc until quiet and no 
more bubbles appear and then add sal ammoniac about eight ounces for 
each gallon ; with this fluid resin must be also added when soldering. 



Market for Canned Goods. . 281 

MARKET FOE CANNED GOODS. 

Large cities like New York, Chicago, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Bostoii; 
St. liouis and San Francisco are the recognized center of the canning trade, 
but home market everywhere may be established, providing the goods are 
put up in a clean and attractive manner, for canned goods sell everywhere, 
on land or sea, and are as staple as flour. In small places the merchant? 
are sometimes averse to taking hold of home made canned goods, as the 
jobbers from whom he buys are interested and are always anxious to push 
the factory goods. This opposition can be mastered by putting up goods 
equally as good or better and supply hotels, restaurants and families for 
a while ; this creates the demand and forces the merchant to place the home 
articles on his shelves, as there will be calls for them. 



FEUITS. 

Varieties to Can. 

Some fruits and vegetables do not can so well as others, therefore we 
give below a list of the most suitable varieties : 

Apples — Baldwin, Eed Astrachan, Nortem Spy, Winesap and Maiden 
Blush ; the early kinds are not desirable. 

Apricots — The Large Early, Golden and Moorpark. 

Blackherries — Kittatinny and native wild. 

Cherries — Belle de Choisy and Late Duke. 

Currants — Fay's Prolific and Prince Albert. 

Grapes — Concord, Catawba, Delaware and Eochester. 

Peaches — Elberta, Alexander, Hale's Early, Crawford, Stump the World, 
Oldmixon, Heath Cling and Early Elvers. 

Pears — Le Conte, Kieffer, Bartlett's & Clapp's Favorite. 

Plums — Golden Drop, Green Gage, Imperial and Wild Goose; many of 
the new Japanese varieties may also be canned, particularly the Satsuma 
and Burbank. 

Strawberries — The Newman, Klondike and Sharpless. 



VEGETABLES. 
Varieties to Can. 

Asparagus — Oyster Bay. 

Beans — Golden Wax, Black Wax, Kidney Wax and Valentines. 

Beans (Lima) — Large White Lima and Seba. 



282 , Canning Without Cooking. 

Com — Evergreen and Adams Early. 
Okra — The Lady Finger and Prolific. 
Peas — Marrowfat and Champion of England. 
PumpJcin — ^Any sweet and hard variety. 
Squash — Barton, Marrow or Hubbard. 

Sweet Potatoes — Jersey Yam, Jersey Sweet, and Pumpkin Yam. 
Tomatoes — Stone, Acme, Trophy, Queen, Dwarf Champion or Living- 
stone Favorite. 



MISCELLANEOUS CANNING EECEIPTS. 

To Preserve Figs. 

To preserve figs is not difficult, although many fig preserving plants in 
the South are claiming to have a great secret in preserving figs. Here is 
the whole secret: Place the figs in a wire basket and dip the whole basket 
in lukewarm lye water; this starts the skin, which removes easily. Place 
then the fruit in layers in glass jar or tins and fill up the vacuum with 
nice clean syrup and seal or solder up tight. This process will produce as 
good preserved figs as anyone can purchase. The Magnolia fig or Celeste 
or Sugar fig are the most popular kinds for preserving. 



CANNING WITHOUT COOKING. 

Select tomatoes,, perfectly fresh and firm and not too ripe, of a size to 
go into the cans without cutting. After removing the skins, fill the jars, 
add salt to each jar (about one teaspoonful), fill with boiling water and 
seal at once with covers that have been boiled in a vessel on the stove. See 
that all spaces are filled with water, allowing no large air bubbles to remain. 
Screw covers down tightly and place jars in a wash boiler or canner con- 
taining boiling water, and allow to remain until the water is cold. Tighten 
the cover again if necessary, and put in a dark, cool place. 

The jars should all be fitted with covers and tested, to be sure they are 
air-tight, before the fruit is put in, not to get the covers mixed after fitting. 

Fruit is canned in the same way, using boiling syrup instead of salt and 
water. In this way we successfully canned 200 quarts of fruit, consisting 
of raspberries, currants, cherries, pared plums, grapes, soft peaches and soft 
pears. Strawberries, hard peaches, hard pears and apples will not k^ep 
prepared in this way. 



Important Points in Canning. 283 

We have never had a single jar of fruit spoil, and the work of canning 
is reduced to a minimum. The fruit retains its shape perfectly and tastes 
almost fresh. 

Green Tomato Sweet Pickle — Eight pounds green tomatoes chopped fine; 
add four pounds brown sugar and one quart vinegar. Boil half an hour 
until quite tender. Add one teaspoonful flavoring just before it is done. 

Green Tomato Pickle — One peck tomatoes and one-half dozen onions. 
Slice and pack in layers with a cup of salt between. 

Tomato Vinegar — One-fourth to one-half pound of sugar to the gallon 
of tomato juice will make a good vinegar. 

To Make Spiced Vinegar — For each gallon of good vinegar, slice small 
garlics, 6; small onions, 1 dozen; horseradish, 2 good sized roots, sliced; 
bruised ginger root, 4 oz. ; black pepper and allspice, unground, each 3 oz. ; 
cloves, 20; cayenne pepper, 1 dozen, or 3 or 4 medium sized red peppers; 
and mustard seed, 4 ozs. Put all into stone jar on back of stove, and steep, 
or keep hot 6 to 10 hours; then strain and bottle for use, or leave in jar. 

Corn Vinegar — Cut off cob one pint of corn, take one pint of brown sugar 
or molasses, and 1 gallon of rain water. Mix all, cover with a cloth, set 
in the sun, and in three weeks you will have a good vinegar. 



SOME IMPOETANT THINGS TO BE KEMEMBEEED IN CANNING. 

Don't leave your soldering irons in fire when not using them. You will 
burn the tin off. 

Keep coppers and steels nicely tinned if you wish to solder easily and 
nicely. 

Use wooden or earthenware vessels for holding prepared fruit, as tin 
will darken it. 

Paste for Labels. — Take one-half cup of flour, stir in cold water to wet; 
one-half teaspoon common glue and pour it all into a pint of water and stir 
till it boils. Thin it to suit with hot water. 

To Label Cans. — Take small brush and put paste one-half inch wide from 
top to bottom of can. Paste on one end of label. Now wrap label around 
can and paste where ends of label lap. 

Number of 3-pound cans to bushel (2-pound cans run about 50 per cent 
more) : Standard peaches, 18; pie peaches, 23; pears, 30; apples, 20; ber- 
ries, 32 ; string beans, 20 ; sweet potatoes, 20 ; tomatoes, 18. 

Baltimore packers pay the following prices for fruits by the bushel : 
Standard peaches, 50c to 75c; pie peaches, 25c to 40c; pears, 50 to 75c; ap- 



884 Types and Modes of Evaporation. 

pies, 25c to 50c; sweet potatoes, 40c to 50c; blackberries, 40c to 65c per 
crate ; strawberries, 80c to $1 per crate ; plums, 75c to $1 per bushel ; toma- 
toes, 18c to 30c. 



EVAPORATING OE DEYING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 

The constant increase of production of fruits and vegetables in the South 
will necessitate many provisions to use the surplus of the best, as well as 
the inferior fruits. While canning forms a valuable auxiliary for that pur- 
pose, the products should also be preserved by the art of drying or by 
evaporation of the water; this process of preserving is more simple and 
less expensive than canning, no cans or expensive machinery being required, 
heat forming the basis from the wet to the dry transformation. The art 
of drying either by sun or artificial heat is much older than canning for 
the preservation of meats, fish, fruits and vegetables, and is even now more 
extensively practiced in most countries because it is the least expensive and 
serves the purpose as well and even better on many products. 

It requires about five pounds of ripe fruits or vegetables to produce one 
pound of dried. Some fruits and vegetables contain less water than others 
and for that reason- those that contain the least water are the most profit- 
able for drying. Among the fruits, the most valuable for evaporating or 
drying are the apple, pear, peach, apricot, fig, grape, strawberry, dewberry 
and blackberry. 

Among the vegetables, the egg plant, mushroom, English pea, pepper, both 
the Irish and sweet potato ; there are a few others but of less value. 



TYPES AND MODES OF EVAPORATION. 

The most primitive way and by no means an inferior way is the sun 
drying, which is highly suitable on the home farm, where labor and time 
are not of any great consideration. The process is rather tedious, as the 
products have to be closely watched, turned, and secured under shelter dur- 
ing rain and even at night from the dew. Raisins from grapes are almost 
invariably sun dried, but the grapes are transported to mountain plateaus, 
where there is neither rain or dews; where there are no mountains and 
where the evaporation of fruit and vegetables becomes a commercial propo- 
sition, artificial heat, in furnace and ovens are used for the purpose. 



TYPES OF EVAPORATING APPARATUS. 

The most simple are the cook stove evaporators, small box-like strvictures^ 
made either from sheet or galvanized iron and placed on the stove; these 
portable ovens, as we may term them, are provided with numerous trays 
upon which the products are spread out; the amount of fruits and vegetables 
is limited and mostly only for family use; some times the amount dried 
in these ovens does not exceed two bushels a day, but sufficient to supply the 
family wants. 

The next grade of evaporators are the portable outdoor concerns ; these are 
very convenient, but still limited to about ten bushels per day ; these evapo- 
rators are mostly constructed out of wood except the parts exposed to the 
fire. The highest and most efficient grade of evaporator for commercial 
use are the kiln evaporators; The amount of products that may be dried 
for market in these kilns is only limited by the capacity and amount of 
space and heat provided. 

In some commercial kilns several thousand bushels of fruits and other 
products are dried every twenty-four hours; these kiln dryers are furnished 
by special manufacturers, who also provide the means of heating and all 
other accessories to conduct the business, and upon application to our office, 
the address of manufacturers and prices of the different capacities will be 
given to our readers. 



PREPARING FRUITS FOR DRYING. 

Apples, pears and peaches are usually pared by hand or a paring machine, 
for the higher grades of dried fruits, all defective, unripe, wormy fruit be- 
ing culled out; the cheaper grades are dried or evaporated without paring. 
Grapes, figs and berries of all kinds are simply cleaned by hand and assorted 
over to remove all decayed portions of the figs, grapes or berries, as no 
sound dried fruit or vegetables can be expected from inferior or partly 
decayed fruits. After the fruits have gone through this process of paring 
or assorting, they are ready for the dryer; the fruit is placed in the trays 
from two inches to four inches in depth ; the trays are then placed in" the 
oven and the heat applied ; the temperature in the oven or dry kiln is then 
raised from 125 degrees to 150 degrees and positively not higher, as there 
would be danger of scorching or burning the contents of the ovens'; after 
one hour the products, whatever they may be, should be turned over; after 
this turning the fruit should remain in the dryer until thoroughly dried ; 
the time required to dry the fruit depends on the steadiness of the. heat and 



28G Preparing Fruits for Drying. 

also upon the thickness; the fruit on the trays, usually from six to twelve 
hours accomplishes the object. 

The bottoms of the trays should not be tight; very frequently wire net- 
ting is used to facilitate the hot air to penetrate the mass. It often occurs, 
when wooden trays are used that the fruit sticks to the wood ; this may be 
avoided by oiling the bottoms and sides of the trays on the floor of the 
kiln dryer slightly with a mixture of tallow and linseed oil. No bad effects 
will be noticed if the mixture is not applied too heavy, which is unnecessary. 

To become perfect in the art of evaporating either fruits or vegetables, 
some experience will always be the best teacher, "but by following the above 
directions, anyone may avoid failures altogether, and achieve partial success 
until practice of a few trials assists. 

The main point is to have the product nice and clean and keep a close 
watch on the amount of heat; 150 degrees is the danger line. 

Bleaching. 

The bleaching process is employed only in apples and pears to prevent 
the fruit from turning dark after it has been sliced, on the cut edges. As 
soon as the fruit is cut it is placed in an air tight receptacle and subjected 
to the fumes of sulphur about forty minutes. It requires about ten pounds 
of sulphur to bleach one ton of fruit; if bleaching is carried to excess it 
becomes injurious to the health of the consumer and is prohibited by the 
pure food law. Special receptacles for bleaching are made out of sheet 
iron and are furnished by manufacturers. In large evaporating plants, 
trays of fruit pass riglit through the bleachers on rollers or tracks to facili- 
tate bleaching. 

Slicing. 

In preparing fruit for the dryers it is sliced after being pared, and fol- 
lowed immediately by bleaching. Slices should not be over one inch in 
thickness. 

Kind of Packages Used for Dried Fruits, 

In packing dried fruits, several sizes of packages are used. The pack- 
age most in use is the 50-pound wooden box ; the dimensions of this box 
is 101/2x11x28; also boxes containing 25 pounds are also standard. Paste- 
board boxes containing one pound and two pounds, decorated with hand- 
some labels are much used and are very popular with the trade ; as in many 
other enterprises the main points in either drying or evaporating fruit and 
vegetables is cleanliness, wholesomeness and attractiveness of the goods. 

Growing Cucumbers and Establishing Pickle Factories. 
The growing of cucumbers in the South for the Northern market has 
of late years become very profitable and the industry of growing them can 



J^repttrin;/ Friiils far /)ri/iini. 287 

be made even more profitable, wbere a pickle factory is established for the 
manufacture of plain pickles, spiced pickles, mixed pickles and chowchow. 

In large pickle factories, the small cucumbers from one inch to four 
inches are brought to the factory in bushel baskets or boxes; they are then 
washed in clean, cold water, dried and assorted in about three sizes; they 
are then placed in strong brine, strong enough to float an egg, to which 
is also added one ounce of alum to every ten gallons of brine; this 
preserves the color and causes them to contract and become hard. The 
pickles may be left in the brine until wanted for the receptacles in which 
they are to be deposited for the market ; often these salt pickles are salted at 
the place of production and afterwards transported in tanks or barrels to 
the factory. 

After the pickles are cured in the brine they are placed in glass jars, 
bottles, kegs or barrels and vinegar poured over them to completely fill 
the vacuum ; for fancy trade the vinegar is spiced with pepper or other 
preferable spices. Many manufacturers of pickles, in order to improve the 
appearance of the green color, use acids, copper green, which is injurious 
to health and contrary to the pure food law. Our directions will pro- 
duce only wholesome and unobjectionable goods. 

Chowchow. 

Chowchow is manufactured from green beans, parts of green tomatoes, 
cucumbers, cauliflower and onions. These ingredients are all cured in 
brine, as previously described, chopped up in small, suitable pieces, put in 
the receptacles, either glass bottles, jars, kegs or barrels and the vacuum 
filled with a mixture of mustard and vinegar. This class of goods is highly 
profitable because odds and ends of the products may be used, unfit for 
the specific pickling. 

Dill Pickles. 

Select any size cucumber, but not too ripe; wash and dry them carefully 
with a towel. Open the end of a barrel and lay the cucumbers in layers; 
for every six inches in depth of the cucumbers place a layer of grape leaves 
and dill; continue this until the barrel is full; replace the head tight and 
lay the barrel on tlie side, open the bunghole and fill in with strong brine 
until quite full; leave the bunghole open; the pickles will now undergo 
the process of working ; have some extra brine on hand and keep the barrel 
full until the working stops, which may require several weeks, depending 
on the temperature. When there is no more appearance of foam the pickles 
are done and ready for use. The barrel can then be closed up and stored 
for future use or market. 



^88 Broom Corn Oiilture. 

Home Made Pickles for Family Use. 

Cucwnber Pickles — Pick cucumber, being careful to leave on stems. 
Small cucumbers make the nicest pickles. Wash them, sprinkle on enough 
salt to nearly cover, then pour boiling water over them. Let stand till cold, 
or over night. Drain off the salt and water, and put them in cold, spiced 
vinegar. Repeat this whenever cucumbers are picked, or until you have 
pickles enough. These are for present use; if it is desired to keep over 
winter, take them out of first vinegar, and cover with, more, spiced to suit 
the taste, taking care that the vinegar is scalding hot; put in a piece of 
alum size of a hickory nut for every three gallons of pickle. The . alum 
helps retain the green color of cucumber, but may be left out if desired. 



BROOM CORN CULTURE. 

The growing of broom corn and the establishment of broom factories is an 
extremely profitable venture, in the South especially, where most of the 
brooms are imported frqm other States. Broom com is more profitable 
than cotton or any other farm product per acre and requires no more cul- 
tivation than corn and less labor than cotton. 

The yield of broom corn will average from ten to twelve hundred pounds 
of dry brush } er acre and is rated at $85 per ton, and is as staple 
an article as cotton or any other crop that a farmer could raise. Two crops 
can be raised from the same land' in one year and it will stand a drouth 
better than any other crop. Two plowings, ordinarily, is sufficient to make 
a broom corn crop. It is estimated that Oklahoma produced upwards of 
forty thousand tons last year, and they have for several years past been 
raising broom corn, and every year they increase the acreage. 

Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Oklahoma produced the greatest 
amount of the broom corn raised in the United States. 

Planting. 

Planting may be done early in April, but in the extreme North it should 
be deferred until the first of May, or later. In no case should planting begin 
until the soil has become thoroughly warm. Since broom corn is more 
susceptible to cold weather than Indian corn, and equally as susceptible 
as sorghum or millet, if planted too early the seeds are not only liable to 
rot in the soil or germinate poorly, but the plants that do appear will be 
weak and the stand and growth irregular. 



Ilrooiu Corn Culture. 289 

With thosG' having no experience with broom corn growing it is prefer- 
able that they delay planting until it is safe to plant cotton and cow peas. 
When the young plants first come up they are slender and delicate, growing 
very slowly the first two or three weeks. This early slowness of growth 
is more marked with early planting and cool weather than with later plant- 
ing in warm weather. One of the most necessary and profitable operations 
in growing of any crop consists of thorough preparation of the soil before 
the crop is planted, and this is particularly true of broom corn. Two or 
three cultivations at intervals of ten or fifteen days before planting will go 
a great way towards the destruction of the growth of young weeds that suc- 
cessively spring up as the weather becomes sufficiently warm for their 
germination. Each shower at this season of the year will start a new crop 
of weeds, and as soon after rain falls and the ground is dry enough for 
cultivation, the weeder, harrow, cultivator, disc or some such surface work- 
ing and weed destroying implement should go over the field with such care 
and thoroughness as if the crop was already growing. This preparative 
cultivation does not only destroy the first few crop of weeds, but give=: to 
the soil a physical character that will manifest itself in the quick germina- 
tion of the seed into strong and rapidly growing young plants, facilitating 
their future cultivation and growth. 

Broom corn rows are usually about three and one-half feet apart, though 
the dwarf forms may be given four to six inches less space. The distance 
the plants should stand in the row depends upon the fertility of the land, 
and as to whether the dwarf or standard varieties are grown. They should 
be thicker on fertile land, about four plants to the foot for the standard, 
and about six for the dwarf should be the distance for plants to occupy in 
the row for soil of medium fertility. On more fertile soil the stand may 
be thicker, and thinner on less fertile soil. A regular uniform stand is 
necessary to secure a uniform quality of brush. Just such quantity of 
seeds should be sown as will give the desired stand with as little thinning 
as possible. It is necessary to have the best seed and the pest preparation 
for the attainment of this. Some broom corn growers sow a superfluous 
quantity of seed and thin to a stand. But thinning broom corn is a tedious 
and expensive task, and one that is frequently neglected, as is the case -with 
sorghum. Corn planters with plate holes small enough for broom corn seed 
may be employed for planting. The seed should be covered from one-half 
to one inch deep, the depth depending on the character of the soil and the 
quantity of moisture in the soil at the time of planting. If the soil is 
dry when the seeds are sown, they should be covered deeper than would be 
necessary if the soil was in good moist condition. Plantings made say 
May, June or July, should be made deeper than those made early in May 



390 Broom Corn Culture. 

or April. Should a heavy rain occur before the seeds have germinated, 
the field should be gone over broadcast with a harrow as soon as the soil 
will admit. This prevents the formation of a crust on land of that nature 
and hastens the germination of the seed. Cultivate same as you would 
Indian corn. 

When broom corn is in the milk or dough state it should be cut and left 
in the field one day and hauled out and spread until thoroughly dry. Care 
should be taken to table it or bend it when the bush makes its first 
appearance, or else the brush will as the seed matures fall down and become 
crooked. 

Beoom Pactoey. 

We have often been asked through the columns of our paper, the Southern 
Shippers' Guide, by our readers and subscribers for information about the 
cost and profits of broom factories and we take this means to reply to all ; 
in fact all the information in this book; the Modern Guide, is based on 
inquiries for knowledge in the orchard, garden or on the farm, for profit. 
There is a general supposition that the establishment of broom factories is 
costly and the manufacture of brooms difficult, requiring skilled labor and 
a vast amount of experience. About the cost we will say, "Big oaks from 
little acorns grow." Some of the largest broom factories in the East and 
West, representing- thousands of dollars, started with hand machinery, cost- 
ing less than $100 for the entire outfit; many are even now operated 
by hand machinery and they have added to their output only by operating 
more machines as fast as the demand for the brooms required it. In fact, 
the cost of the machinery to establish a broom factory is so slight that the 
business can never be monopolized. 

We have before us circulars from a broom factory supply house., enumer- 
ating the total cost of the entire machinery at $70. The profits of the first 
month will pay for the outfit under reasonable circumstances. These manu- 
facturers also supply minute information on how to operate and make 
brooms, so anyone may proceed to make brooms with, at least, partial suc- 
cess, until practice and experience insure complete success and profits. 

Propee Locality foe Staeting a Beoom Factory. 

The proper place to start a broom factory is where there is none in 
operation, and where the brooms are imported from other localities for 
local use, for wherever there are houses with roofs and floors, there is 
a demand for brooms, the same as for the necessities of life. The broom 
factory once started, and a serviceable broom made, the demand is liable 
to grow more rapidly than the factory can supply the brooms. It all de- 



Pidic Recipes. 2»1 

pends on the quality of the goods and the prices to meet all competition 
abroad ; the matter of freight charges are in favor of the local brooms made 
at home. The factory may also be operated during the winter months or 
inclement weather as a side line to orcharding, trucking or farming. 



PICKLE EECIPES. 

Sweet Tomato PicTcle — Slice one peck of green tomatoes and two good 
sized onions, sprinkle over them a teacup of salt and let stand twenty-four 
hours. Drain and add two tablespoonfuls each of ground allspice and gin- 
ger. Put into a preserving kettle, with two pounds of sugar, and vinegar 
enough to cover; simmer until they look transparent. Bottle and seal tight. 

Ripe Tomato PicUe — Pare ripe, sound tomatoes (do not scald), put in 
a jar; scald spices (tied in a bag) in vinegar, and pour, while hot, over 
them. This recipe is best for persons who prefer raw tomatoes. 

Articliol-e PicUe — Cleanse and lay in salt water for a day, drain and 
pour over them cold spiced vinegar, adding a teaspoonful of horseradish 
to each jar. 

Beet Pickle — After- removing all dirt from the beets, let them simmer 
in boiling watgr for about one and one-half hours, or until they may be 
easily pierced Avith a silver fork, then take them out and leave to cool. 
Boil vinegar, using two ounces of whole pepper, two ounces of allspice to 
every gallon, for ten or fifteen minutes and leave to cool. When cold 
pour it over the beets (which you have previously pared and cut into thin 
slices). Make air-tight and they will be ready for eating in a week or 
ten days. 

PicJcled Onions — Peel the onions, which should be fine white ones, but 
not large. Let them stand in strong brine for four days, changing it twice: 
Heat more brine to a boil ; throw in the onions and boil three minutes. 
Throw them at once into cold water and leave them there four hours. Pack 
in jars, interspersing with mace, white pepper corns and cloves. Fill up 
with scalding vinegar, in which you have put a cupful of sugar for every 
gallon. Seal white hot. They will be ready for use in a month, but will 
be better at the end of three months. 

Sweet PicHed Peaches — No. 1 — One-half peck peaches, two pounds 
brown sugar, one pint vinegar, one ounce stick cinnamon, cloves. Boil 
sugar, vinegar and cinnamon twenty minutes. Dip peaches quickly in 
hot water, then rub off the furr with a towel. Stick each peach with four 
cloves. Put into syrup, and cook until soft, using one-half the peaches 
at a time. 



202 Leguminous Crops. 

Sweet JPickled Peaches— No. 2 — Peel the fruit and leave the seed ia; to 
five pounds of fruit add three pounds of sugar, one quart of vinegar, with 
spices to suit the taste; boil until a straw can be easily stuck through them, 
as a test for being cooked enough. 

To Make German Pickles — Cut up equal quantities of cabbage and to- 
matoes; one-third as many onions and green pepper. Salt to taste, boil 
in vinegar till done, put in sugar and flavor to taste. 

Excellent Mixed Pickle — Twelve large cucumbers, sliced ; chop one head 
•of cabbage, and two green peppers ; slice one quart small onions ; one-fourth 
ounce turmeric,- one ounce mustard seed, one ounce celery seed ; three pounds 
brown sugar, three quarts good vinegar. Boil thirty minutes. 

Green Tomato Pickle — One peck of green tomatoes, two quarts of onions, 
vinegar, one-half tablespoonful of cayenne, one-fourth tablespoonful of 
ground mustard, one teaspoonful of turmeric, two pounds of brown sugar, 
one-half pound of white mustard seed, one half ounce of ground mace, one 
tablespoonful of celery seed, one tablespoonful of ground cloves, one-half 
bottle of salad oil. 

tSiceet .Spanish Pickles — Two heads of cabbage of medium size; three 
dozen green tomatoes; two dozen cucumbers and eight small green apples. 
Cut the cabbage in small pieces, also the cucumbers and tomatoes. Sprinkle 
with salt and let stand over night. In the morning drain in the colander 
and scald each separately in weak vinegar; throw this away. Put all in 
a crock and cover with the following mixture: Four and one-half pints of 
vinegar, four pounds brown sugar, one teaspoonful each of white mustard 
and celery seed ; one spoonful of turmeric and ground cinnamon mixed in 
cold vinegar. Cook all together, pour over vegetables while hot; add a 
handful of raisins. 

Tomatoes and Onions — Slice the tomatoes and onions very thin; sprinkle 
a little salt through them ; stand over night. Drain them through a colander 
and put them on to boil with enough vinegar to cover them and boil slowly 
until they are clear and tender, then drain them from the vinegar. Put 
into some fresh vinegar the sugar, mustard seed, mace, celery seed and 
cloves and let them boil for a few minutes, then pour it over the drained 
tomatoes, which have been mixed with the cayenne pepper, ground mus- 
tard and turmeric. Mix them well together, add a half bottle of salad oil 
and when cold put it in jars. 



LEGUMINOUS CROPS. 

Leguminous crops differ from other crops in the fact that in place of im- 
poverishing the soil by their growth upon the land they enrich thesaiiie, and 



Forage Crops. 29;i 

other crops following leguminous crops are benefited thereby. For instance, 
a crop of cow peas may be grown upon a piece of land ; both the vines and 
peas removed and yet the land would be greatly enriched, where other crops 
would have exhausted the land. This phenomenon is explained that legumin- 
ous crops, such as cow peas, clover, tare, vetch,, supine and soy beans are at- 
mospheric feeders, storing carbon and nitrogen in excess of their own 
needs in their root systems and these valuable ingredients remain in the 
ground after the top crop is removed and are absorbed by future crops or 
the land. The leguminous crops are valuable on tlie farm, because in addi- 
tion to benefiting the soil they are valuable forage crops and nothing can 
be lost in growing them. These crops are especially valuable to the orchard- 
ist and truck growers because they may be sown broadcast in the orchard 
and plowed under at a nominal cost and the orchard greatly benefited by 
the process; for the gardener or truck grower they are even more valuable 
yet, because the truck crops only occup the land short periods of the year 
and in place of the land producing obnoxious weeds or grains Avhen 
the truck crop is removed, the sowing of the leguminous crops keep the 
land clean of weeds, the roots loosen the soil and at the same time enrich 
the same. An additional beneficial feature of these crops is : When 
plowed under while in the green state provide humus to the soil, in addi- 
tion to the fertilizing qualities. 



FOEAGE CEOPS. 

Forage crops are one of the most valuable adjuncts to Southern farmers, 
fruit and truck growers. After the land has become vacant in the early 
summer, it is an injury to allow it to become hard and full of weeds, when 
forage crops, such as cow peas, peanuts, Kaflfir corn, may be planted, which 
all improve the ground and provide nutritious food for man, stock and 
poultry. 

Something to sell every month of the year is a good maxim to follow; 
something to eat every month on the farm is just as good, because it saves 
buying and helps to put money in the banks. 

Peanuts. 

All Southern farmers are beginning to recognize that the peanut crop 
is valuable as an auxiliary crop. 

It is unsurpassed for hog fattening on account of the rich oils and fat- 
tening properties; ground up rough, it is an excellent food for chickens 
and cows, as it is followed with liberal laying of eggs and rich milk. 



1<594 Forage Crops. 

Spanish Peanuts. 

Spanish peanuts are the most prolific, earliest and most quickly grown. 
A crop may be made in less than three months ; therefore in Texas, Spanish 
peanuts may be planted as late as July 30 and make a good crop. 

Planting. 

Prepare your ground well by deep plowing and give it a thorough har- 
rowing; lay off your rows three feet apart and drop two peanuts every ten 
inches; it is advisable to shell the nuts. Cover the seed about two inches 
deep, cultivate with shovel plow and give them one or two good hoeings. 
When they are matured, pull them up and expose the roots and nuts to 
the sun for a few days. After they are dry, they may be stacked or hauled 
in the barn; the vines make excellent hay. For the nuts there is always 
a good demand, ranging from $1.00 to $1.50 per bushel. 

While we highly recommend the Spanish peanuts to our readers, we 
cannot recommend the Virginia White or Tennessee Eed, as they have not 
proven a success in the South so far; while they grow perfectly, they do not 
attain the color and flavor which they do in their native State, and which 
is exacted by the trade. 

Kaffir Corn. 

In regard to Kaffir corn the Farm and Irrigation Age says: 

The acreage of Kaffir corn west of the Mississippi is increasing each year. 
In a great many cases it is grown entirely for the fodder, and in the semi- 
arid regions, whei.> ordinary Indian corn will not mature on account of 
deficient moisture, the growing ^f Kaffir corn is very important from the 
feeder's standpoint. Experimer c stations in the West have made extensive 
tests comparing Kaffir corn with ordinary Indian corn, and the Kansas sta- 
tion concludes that under no circumstances has it been found that Kaffir 
corn will not serve satisfactorily as a substitute for Indian corn. 

The experiments show that bushel for bushel Kaffir corn does not have 
the feeding value of ordinary corn, there being a difference of about 20 
per cent in favor of Indian corn when each is fed alone to hogs. However, 
neither corn nor Kaffir corn is proper feed alone, and with some balancing 
feed like alfalfa, linseed meal, or soy bean meal fed in addition, the differ- 
ence disappears almost entirely. 

This fact, together with the much greater yield of Kaffir corn, leaves the 
Kaffir decidedly in the lead. It has practically the same digestive analysis 
as corn. To each 100 pounds there is 7.8 pounds of digestive protein, 57.1 
pounds of carbonhydrates and 2 7-8 pounds of fat. Protein is somewhac 
deficient in Kaffir corn and also in Indian corn ; therefore they must be 



Forage Crops. 295 

fed with some other food rich in protein to make up the deficiency. Dur- 
ing the past ten years it appears that the average yield of an acre of Indian 
corn fed to hogs wilh produce 400 pounds of pork, while an acre of Kaffir 
corn will produce 487 pounds. 

In some further tests, hogs fed a mixture of Kaffir and Indian corn, half 
and half, made better gains than where either corn or Kaffir was fed alone. 
Hogs fed Kaffir corn made a gain of 44 pounds in 50 days. When given 
dry alfalfa hay in addition they gain 651/2 pounds in 50 days. When fed 
four-fifths Kaffir corn and one-fifth soy beans they made a gain of 861^ 
pounds in 50 days. This gain was made with lots of ten each averaging 
140 pounds at the beginning of the experiment. It should be noted that 
the alfalfa hay used in this experiment was of a poor quality. In this 
test 333 pounds of pork were credited to each ton of alfalfa hay. In an- 
other experiment, which was a duplicate of the one just mentioned, the 
hay was of excellent quality, and there was a gain of 86.8 pounds of pork 
due to the influence of one ton of alfalfa hay. 

The quality of the pork from Kaffir corn fed hogs was a high grade. 
Fifty head were sent to St. Joseph, Mo., and the slaughter test showed that 
the animals dressed from 70 to 80.4 per cent edible pork. The packing 
house which had the animals in charge stated that they showed good dis- 
tribution of lean and fat. 

It will be seen from above, that Kaffir corn should not be overlooked; 
it is about as easily grown as weeds and surely more profitable. 

Variety, 

The red Kaffir corn is very good, growing to the height of about from 
five to eight feet; the stalks are slender and juicy and leafy; it grows well 
even on poor land and is a little earlier than the white; our favorite has 
alwa}^? been the white Kaffir corn; the seeds are larger and less brittle, 
the stalk shorter and more leafy, the seed-heads form at the top of each 
stalk, and as soon as these mature, other seed-stalks appear on lower joints. 

Planting. 

Prepare your ground well by plowing, and lay it off three feet apart, 
sow your seed in the rows to average a seed every four inches ; it takes about 
five pounds of seed to sow an acre in rows; the corn may be broadcasted 
if desired for forage alone, and mowed with the machine and tied in bun- 
dles; it will take about twenty pounds to the acre to broadcast. The sow- 
ing in rows is more economical, as it will yield a much larger percentage 
of corn. 



cow PEAS FOR PEOFIT. 

Cow peas, as far as their habits and cultivation is concerned, are really 
a bean rather than a pea. 

Cow peas are a most valuable crop for the Southern farmer. What the 
clover is to the Northern farmer the cow pea is to the Southern, as a source 
of forage and enriching the soil, and no Southern farm, either large or 
small, should be without a liberal patch of cow peas during the summer 
and fall months. It is usually supposed that cow peas, in order to enrich 
the soil must be turned under while still green ; this is, however, erroneous ; 
it is true that the cow peas turned under while green supply a humus to 
the soil which undoubtedly is beneficial, yet is not necessary as the roots 
of the peas contain a large percentage of nitrogen, which is of the most 
value for further crops and any piece of land where cow peas have been 
grown is richer in nitrogen, which is of the most value for further crops, 
even if the vines and fruit have been removed. 

The planting of cow peas should be encouraged, especially by fruit and 
truck growers, for both orchard and truck lands, as the peas will keep the 
ground shaded, loose and sweet for future crops and destroy noxious weeds. 
Both the vines and peas are excellent food for stock and poultry, and find 
a ready market always at hand for the threshed peas. 

Soil, 

The cow pea will grow on any land not too wet, and even make a fair 
crop on worn land; they will make the best growth on medium rich land. 

Planting. 

The planting of cow peas can be done in drills or broadcast; if planted 
in drills they can be cultivated, which is very beneficial and the peas are 
more easily gathered. Most farmers broadcast the peas by plowing or har- 
rowing them in, which is a very satisfactory method. From one and one- 
half to three bushels of seed should be sown to the acre. 

Varieties. 

There are many good varieties of cow peas; the most favorite kinds are 
the Whipporwill pea, which is a bunch variety, very productive and hardy. 
The Clay pea is also one of the best kind for Southern growers; it is of 
large foliage, long roots and abundant bearer. The Lady pea is a great 
favorite, as it is a delicate small pea, very acceptable for table use, and 
much in demand at fair prices. The large black-eyed peas are probably 
the best money makers, for picking dry for market. 



PARA GRASS (Panicum Molle). 

This grass is a native of South America and has been grown somewhat 
commonly in Florida, to a very slight extent in Southern Texas, and occa- 
sionally throughout the Gulf Coast region. It is a perennial which makes 
its best growth on damp soils, though it has been fairly successful in Texas 
ranches where irrigation is needed for most other crops. It is not injured 
by prolonged overflows, making a vigorous growth where the land is under 
water several weeks. It is especially valuable for planting on ditch banks, 
on the margins of ponds and on soils two wet and "seepy" for the cultiva- 
tion of other crop. It is used for both hay and pasture. Para grass will 
not withstand a lower temperature than 24 degrees Fahrenheit. It Is 
therefore adapted only to the extreme southern portion of the country and 
California. It has succeeded as far north as Charleston, S. C. 

Planting. 
Para grass is usually propagated by planting pieces of the running stems, 
which often makes a growth of twenty to forty feet in a season. Pieces of 
the stems from twelve to fifteen inches long and having three or four joints 
grow rapidly when simyly pushed down into freshly plowed ground, so 
propagation is neither difficult nor expensive. If cuttings are planted ten 
feet apart each way, they will cover the ground in the course of a season. 
This is the best way to secure a large number of cuttings for planting the 
next season. When the supply is sufficient it is much better to plant only 
about two inches apart in each direction, as when thickly planted the stems 
are not nearly so coarse. The first growth from the cuttings is in long, 
prostrate runners, but as soon as the ground becomes fairly well covered it 
becomes more erect, soon reaching a height of three to four feet, . so the 
closer the cuttings are planted the sooner a crop will be secured. 

Uses. 

If wanted for hay, Para grass should be cut when it reaches three tp 
four feet in height. From three to five cuttings may be made in a eeasoii, 
and, as from one to three tons of hay are secured each cutting, the total 
yield is quite heavy. Both Texas and Florida growers report having: made 
as much as twelve tons of hay per acre in a season. The hay is rather 
coarse, but is excellent quality. When used for pasture the grass stands 
tramping well and is relished by all kinds of stock. 

The yield is greatly increased by annual piowings. Some growers prefer 
(to plow in November or December, as plowing at that time is sure to cover 
portions of the stems, so that they will b0 well protected in case of a freeze. 



•i9S Alfalfa. 

while other cultivators, living below the frost line, prefer to plow in July, 
sacrificing one midsummer cutting of hay, but loosening the soil, so as 
to secure heavy August and October cuttings and abundant winter grazing. 
An annual plowing is certainly beneficial, but the season when it can be 
done to best of advantage seems wholly a matter of the probable winter 
temperature. While this grass makes very long runners which root at 
every joint, the runners are wholly above the surface of the ground and 
so can be destroyed without great trouble. This grass should be extensively 
tried under irrigation in Arizona and California. It is one of the very 
few grasses that will yield as heavily in gross tonnage as alfalfa. There 
is reason to believe also that in a dry climate satisfactory seed can be grown. 



FEEDING VALUE OP SOY BEANS. 

The soy bean and soja bean are one and the same thing. It is a legume, 
and, in our opinion, will yield more grain per acre than the cow pea. 
Some varieties of it, such as the black, which mature comparatively early 
and do not grow so vigorously as the Mammoth Yellow and the IMerlium 
Green, will make a fine quality of hay, and one which is easier to cure than 
that from the cow pea. When planting for grain you will find the two 
varieties just mentioned among the best to plant for large yields. The 
black is an excellent variety of soy bean for general cultivation. The grain 
can be fed to a great variety of live stock, but being rich in protein, it should 
be mixed with corn or other concentrates. The hay will be readily eaten 
by all classes of live stock. Farmers in the South should cultivate the soy 
bean extensively. It makes a much richer hay than timothy and can be 
fed under rational conditions as a substitute for a portion of the grain 
now fed to beef and dairy cattle. It will produce more pounds of beef per 
acre when fed in the form of hay than would be obtained from an acre of 
corn. Wlien grazed it should make from 400 to 600 or more pounds of 
pork per acre. Soy beans contain an average of 89.6 per cent of digestible 
protein as compared wilh 18.3 for cow peas, fifteen to sixteen for bran and 
37.3 for cotton seed meal. You will see that it is one of the richest food- 
stuffs the farmer can grow and will aid in balancing up rations in which 
corn predominates. 



ALFALFA. 

By J. H. CONNELL. 

With the exception of cotton, there is no one plant that will thrive in 
so many States in the South as will alfalfa. Its penetrating roots, reaching 



Alfalfa. .299 

to a (Icptli of ten or twenty feet, seem specially made for the purpose of 
prob'ng the dry and porous soils of the South. The valuable hay growing 
at the rate of six tons to the acre during a single season gives eloquent 
testimony of the Southern sun when expended upon this plant of continu- 
ous growth. The March winds that herald the coming of spring find that 
alfalfa is ahead of them with tender shoot and verdant leaf, covering the 
moist soils before the native grass and weeds shoot forth. The frosts of 
early winter leave alfalfa in possession, with only a leaf chilled here and 
there, and without discouragement to the live stock that graze across 
verdant pastures in December. 

Without irrigation alfalfa grows apace on all of the fertile lands of the 
South. Upon the uplands three tons per acre are secured with certainty. 
On the lowlands as much as six tons are had during the most favorable 
seasons. The yield per acre depends somewhat upon the treatment of 
the crop by the farmer. If the meadows are grazed as well as mowed,, the 
yield of hay will of course be diminished. Winter grazing is most harmful 
to the yield of hay. On the other hand, the most productive system con- 
sists in keeping stock off the fields at all seasons, and cultivating the land 
with harrow between mowings, in order that the bare and exposed soil may 
not have all of its moisture driven from it during hot weather. 

The influence of cultivation upon the alfalfa crop is remarkable, but 
without cultivation or irrigation the yield of hay per acre upon fairly fer- 
tile soils exceeds the crops grown upon the irrigated lands of Colorado and 
Utah. This fact is rendered possible by the long and favorable growing 
seasons in this lower latitude. 

Some Southern Soils. 

Eich alluvial lands lying along the river valleys and the creeks are the 
best suited to alfalfa, but the heavy black prairies and the chocolate loams 
of the uplands will maintain alfalfa for many years without re-seeding, and 
without a shrinkage in the annual crop of hay secured from such soils. 
The river and valley lands have a compensating disadvantage in that they 
sometimes overflow to such an extent as to injure the stand, necessitating 
replanting in spots. In this respect, however, alfalfa is not more sensitive 
than other crops. It will endure overflow quite as long as will corn or 
cotton. But we sometimes hear an expression of disappointment because 
it is not both a drouth-resisting and water-loving plant as well. 

Any of the worn or light post oak soils of the South will grow alfalfa 
profitably if a crop of cow peas has been grown upon the land just before 
seeding the alfalfa. A light application of stable manure will have the 
same eeffect. 



300. Alfalfa; ^Vhcii to Sow; Vahie. 

When to Sow, 

Either fall or spring seeding is successful, provided one sows early enough 
in fall to permit the plants to harden before winter begins, or sows early 
enough in spring to permit the plants to harden before the hot summer 
sun of May and June draws out the surface moisture. September and Oc- 
tober are the best months for fall seeding; March and April for spring 
seeding. 

When alfalfa plants first come through the land and try to establish 
themselves they are very small and tender. At this time they need a good 
seed bed, moist, porous and cool. It is advisable, therefore, that the land 
should be plowed and re-plowed, and then harrowed more than once before 
the seed is put in the gound. Proper seeding is three-fourths of the battle 
in sowing alfalfa. If well sown, the crop will last for ten, twenty or thirty 
years. There is one field of alfalfa in North Texas known to have been 
seeded thirty years ago, which is still producing hay. When the land has 
been thoroughly prepared by plowing it from six to fifteen inches deep, 
the deeper the better for stiff soils, and thoroughly harrowed and when a 
rain has settled the ground, plant your seed at the rate of fifteen or twenty 
pounds per acre, broadcasting Ihem over the surface and cover by harrow- 
ing in. If weeds begin to grow freely while the alfalfa is young, mow 
them down. This will not discourage alfalfa. 

So many people are inclined to plant oats and wheat with alfalfa as a 
"nurse crop." This is a serious mistake. When grain has been taken off 
the land in late spring, the hot sun burns the tender alfalfa, the land loses 
its moisture quickly, and the stand of alfalfa disappears. Alfalfa is good 
enough to plant alone. It thrives best without a nurse crop, and will richly 
repay careful plowing and seeding at a seasonable time. 

The Value of Alfalfa. 

Work horses and mules have tilled good crops of corn and cotton through 
an entire spring and summer when fed upon alfalfa alone, without injury 
to such stock. The leaves are greedily eaten by poultry during the winter 
time, and the hay, when well cured, is relished by hogs, preventing any 
necessity for large amounts of grain feed, because of its nourishing quali- 
ties. Its purple blooms furnish the richest and most abundant supply of 
honey during the spring and fall. Its roots subsoil the land, draining it 
thoroughly in some cases, and furnishing it with a rich supply of fertil- 
izing, elements in all instances. The plant feeds upon the air in the soil, 
as well as upon the soil itself, and in this way stores large amounts of plant 
food in the land for its own use and for crops that come after it. 



Fruit and Vegetable Crate Factories. 301 

Would it not be a great blessing to grow alfalfa extensively upon the 
valley lands and the worn cotton uplands of the South, restoring to such 
soils the plant food lost by years of exposure to washing rains and the re- 
peated removal of crops which have been sold from the cotton plantations 
of the South. 

Some Alfalfa Don'ts. 

A successful alfalfa grower gives the following don'ts to prospective ex- 
perimenters with this useful plant: 

Don't sow any "nurse crop." 

Don't sow on freshly plowed land, no matter how nicely prepared. 

Don't let weeds or grass get over six inches high without clipping. 

Don't clip or mow when wet with rain or dew. Don't let it stand if 
turning yellow; cut it. 

Don't sow old seed. 

Don't sow less than twenty-five pounds per acre, one-half each way. 

Don't sow on land that will not raise 100 bushels of potatoes per acre. 

Don't sow twenty-five acres, sow five. 

Don't pasture it. 

Don't put any of the rotten manure anywhere but on your alfalfa plot. 

Don't depend on "culture" cakes or soil from some distant field. 

Don't let water ever stand on it. 

Don't let it go if a thin stand; disc in more seed. 

Don't be afraid you will kill it. 

Don't replow the land; disc it. 

Don't wait for it to "stool ;" it never does. 

Don't try to cut hay until it takes the field. 

Don't sow on any land not well underdrained. There are two varieties — 
yellow and purple bloom — otherwise the same. 

Don't sow the yellow. 

Don't give it up. 



FEUIT AND VEGETABLE CEATE FACTORIES. 

Wherever there is sufficient fruit and truck grown at any point, the 
establishment of a^box and crate factory adds to the convenience and value 
of the location. The readiness with which boxes may be secured causes 
more fiuit and truck to be grown and it also induces new settlers to locate, 
for everyone recognizes quickly all the facilities at hand in the way of 
canning factories, evaporators, dairies and box and crate factories, as all 
of these industries flourish best where the most profits can be obtained. 

20 



303 Tanning. 

Most fruit and truck growers labor under the impression that canning 
factories, broom factories, box and crate factories are costly affairs, re- 
quiring large capital and vast experience to operate, when as a matter of 
fact a box and crate factory, outside the boiler and engine, all of the ma- 
chinery from the log to the finished box or crate may by bought for less 
than five hundred dollars and wherever fruit and truck is grown and where 
timber may be close by, the erection of a box and crate factory is as safe 
a proposition as any other business enterprise. Upon application to our 
oflBce we will cheerfully give all further information how to operate a box 
and crate factory, cost of plant and where to get the machinery. At most 
points the same boiler and engine used in the cotton gin and canning fac- 
tories could be used for the box and crate factory, when otherwise, at 
certain times, both would be idle. What it needs is a live and up-to-date 
Fruit and Truck Growers' Association at the shipping points to grasp all 
of these opportunities, which means economy, profit and success in any 
community; the saving of freight charges alone on the empties may always 
be considered quite an item. 

Timber for Boxes and Crates. 

The timber mostly used for crates and boxes are the poplar, sweet gum, 
Cottonwood and ash; for cheaper grades of boxes much other timber may 
be used. Poplar being a soft and dense wood is suitable for strawberry 
crates and quarts; the gum being tough and elastic is most suitable for 
baskets and heavier crates; on account of the odor of pine it is used but 
little except in large crates like cabbage crates and the cheaper grade of 
vegetable boxes. 



TANNING. 



As every farmer or gardener may have occasion, where he desires to tan 
animal hides or skins for home use, we give below a few useful receipts. : 

In order to get the best results in tanning skins with the hair on, for 
rugs or for any other purpose, the skins should first be thoroughly washed 
and all flesh from the inner surface should be be removed. The hair or 
wool should be cleaned with warm water and soft soap, and rinse well. Take 
one-half pound each common salt and ground alum and one ounce of borax, 
dissolve this mixture in hot water and add sufficient rye meal to make a 
thick paste; spread this paste on the fleshy side of the skin. 

Fold the skin lengthwise with the flesh side in, the skin being quite 
moist; then put in an airy and shady place for about ten days or two 



Tanning. 303 

weeks. Shake the skin well and remove the paste from the surface, wash 
and dry thoroughly. If the skin is a heavy one a second similar applica- 
tion of salt and alum may be made. 

Afterwards stretch the skin with the hands or over a beam, and use a 
blunt knife on the flesh side. 

Mats. 

To prepare sheepskin for mats: Make a strong lather with hot water 
and soap, then let stand until cold; wash the skin in this mixture, care- 
fully squeezing out all the dirt from the wool, then rinse the skin in cold 
water until all soap is taken out. In two gallons of hot water dissolve one 
pound each of salt and alum, put the skin into a tub suflficient to cover it, 
and let it remain in this mixture for twelve hours, then hang over a pole 
to drain. When well drained stretch carefully on a board to dry, and stretch 
several times while drying. When nearly dry, sprinkle one ounce each 
of finely pulverized alum and salt peter on the flesh side, rubbing in well. 
If the wool is not firm on the skin, let remain a day or two, then rub again 
with alum. Fold the skin lengthwise with the flesh side in, hang in shade 
for two or three days, turning them over each day till quite dry. With a 
blunt knife scrape the flesh side and rub it well with pumice or rotten 
stone. 

Fur skins are tanned by first removing all the tiseless parts and soften- 
ing the skin by soaking; then remove the fatty matter from the inside and 
soak it in warm water for an hour. Mix equal parts of borax, salt peter 
and sulphate of soda in the proportion of about one-half ounce of each for 
each skin, add sufficient water to make a thin paste, spread this with a brush 
over the inside of the skin, applying more to the thicker parts, double the 
skin flesh side in and put in a cool place. After remaining for twenty- 
four hours wash the skin clean, and apply in same manner a mixture of 
two ounces sal soda, one ounce of borax and four ounces hard white soap, 
melted together slowly without being allowed to boil; then fold together 
and put in a warm place for twenty-four hours. Dissolve eight ounces of 
alum, sixteen ounces of salt and four ounces of saleratus in sufficient hot 
rain water to saturate the skin; when cool enough not to scald the hands, 
soak the skin in it for twelve hours, then wring out and hang it up to 
dry. When dry repeat the soaking and drying two to three times till the 
skin is sufficiently soft. Smooth the inside with fine sandpaper and pumice 
stone 



PART VI 11. 



POULTRY IN AN EGGSHELL. 



THE POULTRY YARD. 

The industry of conducting commercial poultry yards of fancy breeds, 
or either the common barnyard fowl, is so well known throughout our 
land there is hardly any need to dwell on that particular part; it is suffi- 
cient to say that the American hen is the most valuable of all birds, and 
would we consider faithfulness, usefulness and profits the only points, the 
hen would well be entitled to the place of honor as our national bird. 

The early crow of the cock is the symbol of contentment and sweet home, 
the lusty cackle of the hen, full of thrift and promise. 

The industry of raising poultry or production of eggs can never be 
monopolized, for it requires no capital to invest. A dozen eggs or less and 
a willing hen starts the yard on a small, but sure basis and future care of 
the owner does the rest. 

In the year 1900, when the last census was taken, the United States 
possessed on its farms, cities and suburbs 7,000,000 turkeys, 6,000,000 
geese, 5,000,000 ducks and 233,500,000 chickens, nearly four heads of 
poultry per capita. 

The value of the poultry was $136,891,977. The production of eggs 
had a commercial value of $144,000,000. 

In 1902 we exported to Great Britain $331,000 worth of eggs and a like 
amount to Cuba and other foreign countries. 



POULTEY FAEMING. 

The poultry industry of the State of Kansas is occupying an important 
place in the realms of agriculture. Within the State already over $9,000,000 
worth of poultry products are sold each year, not considering the immense 
consumption within the State. During the year of 1906 the poultry pro- 
ducts were increased 25 per cent over those of 1905, and the prospects for 
the year of 1907 indicate even a greater increase. 

Kansas has led in the production per capita of poultry and eggs for many 
years. According to the census of 1900 there was $9.32 worth of poultry 
and eggs sold for every man and woman in the State. Iowa comes next 
with $8.74. The value of the poultry products is one-twelfth of the total 
farming income. Poultry, as in the case of dairying, is a very profitable, 
independent industry, but it can also be combined in many cases, with ex- 
ceedingly great profits, with other classes of farming. To show what classes 



308 Poultry Eaising and Egg Production. 

of farming poultry farming is generally combined with statistics are given 
below from the department of agriculture, which show the value of poultry 
products produced m connection with the different kinds of farming: 

Kinds of farming and value of poultry products per farm : Dairy farm- 
ing, $38.69; live stock feeding $23.09; hay and grain farming, $18.36; 
fruit farming, $18.00; vegetable farming. $15.60. 

Poultry farming is generally taken up by men of stable industry. As 
people become more wealthy and better educated, the coarser articles of 
diet are supplanted by more wholesome and palatable foods. Thus it is that 
the consumption of pork per capita is decreasing while the am_ount of 
butter and eggs eaten by the average American is nearly twice as great as 
they were twenty years ago. For this reason poultry raising is carried 
on more extensively in progressive communities where the population is 
quite dense and where people live with the more modern conveniences. 

General poultry raising, either in the commercial or barnyard, is attended 
with both success and failures. Failures are more fre(|uently experienced 
where poultry is more or less confined or where too largo a flock is k('])t 
on the same premises; the natural instinct of the fowls is a desire to 
roam and search for food rather than feed in abundance and close con- 
finement. Many of the poultry diseases may be traced to lack of proper 
exercise, pure food and unclean habitations of the fowls, for all contagious 
diseases appear in the most virulent form only in close quarters. 



POULTEY EAISING AND EGG PEODUCTION. 

Poultry raising for profit may be divided into three classes: 

First — The growing of fancy fowls for breeding purposes. 

Second — The growing of poultry for meat and eating purposes. 

Third — The growing and keeping of poultry for egg production. 

It must be understood by our readers that in publishing this book, the 
"Modern Guide," where so many subjects are treated, we are forced to 
limit the amount of space to each subject. We consider poultry growing'the 
most important of all additions to farming, orcharding and truck growing, 
not alone for the profit in poultry growing so much as the usefulness of 
the fowls in checking and subduing insect life on the farm, orchard or 
garden; yet all of our writing will be to the point, covering only such points 
most important to success. 



STANDARD BEEEDS. 







IDEAL LIGHT BRAHMA TRIO. 

This illustration shows the Light Brahma true to life. Where this mag- 
nificent bird is known we need say but little in its behalf. They are the 
largest breed of fowls. Hardy, gentle and handsome, good winter layers, 
content in small yards and rarely attempt to fly. Standard weights are: 
cock 12 pounds, cockerel 10 pounds, hen Qi/o pounds and pullet 8 pounds. 



CHICKEN EXPEEIENCES. 



All summer and spring my chicken house has been filled with mites 
They became so bad that the sitting hens left the nests, and many of 
the fowls refused to roost in the hen house. I tried nearly everything 
until I heard of the following very simple remedy. You know that mites 
spend the day in cracks, holes and slivers in the roost. One morning in 
each week I went over the hen house with a common machine oil can filled 
with kerosene and squirted the cracks and holes full of oil. The result 



310 



Bujf Cochins. 




IDEAL BUFF COCHIN TRIO. 

No lover of large fowls ever saw a flock of well-bred BuflE Cochins with- 
out admiring them. Their massive bodies, heavily coated with feathers 
of a rich buff or golden color, make them very attractive. They are one 
of our oldest Asiatic varieties, breed wonderfully true to color, and are 
considered the most hardy and prolific fowl of their class. Good winter 
layers, well fitted for cold climates. A three-foot fence will keep them. 
But, owing to their immense size they do not, as a rule, make good sitters 
and mothers. Their standard weights are: cocks 11 pounds, hens Si^) 
pounds. 



was that in three weeks there was uot a mite to be seen, and the fowls are 
doing better now than they ever did before. I should have said that before 
I applied the oil the first time I went all over the interior of the house 
and washed the walls and roosts with boiling soap suds and then gave 
them a coat of whitewash. This destroyed a great many of the insects, 
but those I missed and those hatched from the eggs were put out of com- 
mission by the coal oil. — H. B. Speck. 



Single-Comb Jirown Leghorns. 



311 




s^^^=^-.- 



IDEAL SINGLE COMB BROWN LEGHORN TRIO. 

For vitality and egg production the Brown Leghorn stands at the head. 
No other breed will lay so many eggs on as little feed. Non-sitters, easy 
to mature, pullets begin laying at four and five months old. Bear confine- 
ment well, but are gi-eat foragers; active on foot and wing, and it i;^. 
seldom a hawk can catch them. Their bodies, though small compared with 
the Asiatic breed, are very plump and make delicious eating, having that 
gamey lobes, and rich plumage make them truly beautiful. Leghorns are 
not given a weight in standard. A well matured male weighs from 5 to 6 
pounds, hens from 3I/2 to 5 pounds. 



GEEEN" FOOD FOR POULTRY. 

Everyone with room to keep chickens should raise a supply of green food 
for them. Lettuce is one of the best green feeds and about the easiest 
to raise, and a small plot will grow enough for a good-sized flock of chickens. 
A poultry journal tells of a friend who has only about four city lots that 
keeps a hundred or more chickens and finds room to sow rape in one or 
two of his yards, and, after it gets six inches high, which is only a short 
time, he turns his chickens in and lets them strip it. Then they are turned 



312 



Rose-Conih Brown Leghorns. 




COPYRKtHT 190H 
CHAS. L.STILES. 

^ C0LUM0U4.0* 



IDEAL ROSE COMB P.ROWN LEGHORN TRIO. 

The Rose and Single Comb varieties are exactly alike in every feature 
except the comb. They are very hardy and the chicks are easily reared on 
free range; in fact, before you are aware of it, they are little vestpocket 
editions of their brilliant parents; great foragers, and. in summer require 
but little feed. Their low, compact combs are not easily frozen, which 
makes them more desirable in our Northern clime than the single comb 
variety. They breed very true to feather and form and are fine layers. 



into another yard whieli has been sown to rape, and while they are eating at 
that the first rape starts up as green as ever. Wliy not sow a rape patch on 
the farm this spring for green feed through the hot, dry summer monthf:. 



MARKING YOUNG CHICKENS. 

If you want to mark your young chickens when they first come from the 
nest, get a shoe punch, spread out the foot and punch a hole in the web 
between the toes. Several broods may be marked in this way, so that each 



Harrcd Pliiiiioiifh liochs. 



313 




IDEAL BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK TRIO. 

The Barred Plymouth Ifocks are so well known that a description of 
them is deemed unnecessary. Sulfice it to say they have held their own 
against all comers, and are today justly termed "The Farmers' Favorite/* 
all-purpose fowl. Easy to raise, good foragers and are ready sellers in any 
market. Standard weights are: cock 9i/^ pounds, hen 7i/^ pounds. 



brood may be readily distinguished. One could be marked in the extreme 
left web, another in the right foot on the left side, another in the right 
web of the left foot, and so on. 

This system of marking in no wise injures the chickens so marked, nor 
is it painful to it. And, if there is no punch handy, the marking can be 
done with a knife, splitting the web instead of punching it; but the 
punch is the best. — Southern Cultivator. 



FRUIT AJs^D POULTEY. 

Th(; combining of fruit Avith poultry is an advantage to both branches 
of industry. The trees provide shade for the chickens during the hot 
months, when it is so very essential to the comfort and growth of the 
chicks. Then the hens and chicks will be at work constantly as long as 



314 



Silver Laced Wyandottcs. 







IDEAL SILVER LACED WYANDOTTE TRIO. 



The useful qualities of the Silver Laced Wyandotte goes without repeat- 
ing. The American Wyandotte Club is one of the Jargest poultry organi- 
zations, which alone explains the standing of this variety of fowl in the 
estimation of tlie poultry fanciers' fraternity. They are beautiful in plum- 
age, have bright yellow legs and skin, low rose comb, which makes them 
adapted to cold climates, plump bodies. Cocks weigh 814 pounds, hens 
one pound less, and as layer;^ are the best of all middle-size fowls. For 
table qualities they are not excelled. 



there is a bug or worm to be found at the roots of the trees, scratching' 
and digging, and getting the very essential exercise, as well as ridding the 
trees of their enemies. I have known plum and pear trees to bear where 
chickens were kept under them, when trees without the chicken accom- 
paniment failed entirely. 

There are several reasons for this. First, and very essential, of course, 
is the riddance of bugs and insects of all kinds. Another and very import- 
ant result, and one not generally considered in this connection, is the 
enriching from the droppings. Trees thus treated will not only bear fruit 



Buff Plymoulh Rocks. 



^is 




IDEAL BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK TRIO. 

The Buff Plymouth Eock is a most beautiful fowl. They are the same 
size, style and shape as their barred cousins. Legs, beak and skin are 
a deep orange yellow, while their combs, wattles and ear lobes are a bright 
red, which, withj their rich buff plumage, make a very pretty contrast. They 
are one of the latest additions to the standard of perfection. 



when other trees do not, but will yield double the quantity and be of a 
very superior quality, free from blemishes and defects, not only on the 
outside, but at the seed. 

Then we have the pleasure and satisfaction of a beautiful poultry yard, 
studded with trees, to look upon, rather than the unsightly, barren grounds 
as usually seen. 

There is no question or doubt about the problem that you need wait to 
consider. It will work, and work to your satisfaction, if you go about it 
in a business-like manner. Plums and peaches are especially adapted to 
the poultry yard and its consideration. It is not advisable, however, to 
allow the chickens to' roost in the trees, as the droppings upon the limbs 
tend to scald the bark and make it peel off. 



316 



Minorcas. 




IDEA.L MINORCA TRIO. 

Minorcas are very beautiful in appearance, carrying ^tyle and elegance 
equaled by no other black variety. They have long bodies, large red 
combs, large white ear lobes which show off to very best advantage against 
their glossy black plumage, and what's more, are layers of the largest 
white eggs of any variety. Under orxlinary conditions they start laying 
about March 1st, and lay continually until about September 1st, and by 
feeding for winter eggs, and keeping in very warm house, make best of 
winter layers. 

One wishing for black plumage birds cannot get better returns or more 
satisfaction than from Black Minorcas. As table fowls, many insist on 
having white skin birds, claiming the meat of same excels in juiciness and 
flavor. Minorcas are certainly fine flavored, and are really too pretty to 
eat. They do best when hatched in April, May and June, and, being warm 
climate birds, need the heat to bring them to quick development. They 
stand the coldest winter weather, nature providing them with great floM' 
.of blood, keeping combs and wattles from frosting. Standard weight of 
males 7 to 10 pounds, females SVo to 7 pounds. 



Sliif/h'-Coinh While FAUjJiorns. 



3ir 




IDEAL SINGLE COMB LEGHORN TRIO. 

Single Comb White Leghorns, known the world over as the greatest of 
egg producers. Layers of good sized eggs from medium-sized birds. Very 
active, easy to raise, quick to mature, non-sitters, as good layers at two 
to five years old as other varieties after the first year. Weights, males 5 
to 7 jjounds, females 4 to 5% pounds. 



TEST AGE OF EOWLS. 

A rooster's age is determined by the size of his spurs. If they are long 
he is "antique." If there is a small button on the ankle where the spurs 
come later he is a young bird. Ducks are invariably judged by the under 
lip of the bill. If a dressed duck will sustain its weight by its under bill, 
lay it back and try another, for there is no telling how old it is, certainly 
too C'ld to be real tender. But if the bill snaps easily it is a young bird. 
Gobblers are told by their spurs, the same as roosters, the age of the hen 
turkey being determined by the length of its beard. Aside from the test 
applied to ducks, there is one infallible rule which can be applied with 

20 



BKIEF MP]NTION OF THE OEPINGTONS. 




IDEAL BUFF OllPINUTON TUIO. 

The Orpington is a very popular fowl, and well they should be, for ihere 
is no fowl that will outclass them for a strictly first-class utility breed. 
You may take it for eggs, and it has but few equals, and for flesh and quick 
development it has no superiors. It is becoming so popular that it stanils 
at the head of the list and almost alone. As a fancier's fowl it will take 
care of itself and today they are as strong a class as any in our leading 
exhibitions. Too much cannot be said of this most beautiful fowl. What 
IS more nandsome than the Orpingtons, when they are bred to the highest 

state of perfection? We meet many specimens at the leading shows these 
days that almost beggar description. Surely the Buff Orpinton is a won- 
derful addition to the long list of our fine fowls. There is no breed that 
has gained greater popularity in so short a time, than have the Buff Orp- 
ington, and truly they deserve all that is accorded them. In size the Or|>- 



safety in all cases. The back part of the breastbone can be bent easily in 
a young fowl. If it is sharp and hard and refuses to yield to pressure from 
your thumb it is an old bird. 



(U)ld('ii \\'i/iiH(/()U('s 



319 



ingtou stands alongt^ide oi our licaviest breeds, and when it comes to laying 
they need not blush for their credit in this respect, for they are of such 
an active disposition, scratching and foraging so freely that eggs must 
necessarily come; and they do come in pleasing abundance, nearly all the 
year around. If they have to be yarded, they will make the most of their 
opportunities and rest contented with a four-foot inclosure. For its size 
it is a very moderate eater. The chicks are very hardly, and grow rapidly, 
feather quickly, and are ready for the market at any age. They can be 
bred to great size and cockerels are grown to ten pounds with little effort. 
They come right along from shell to maturity, at all stages, from large 
enough for a broiler to a roaster, they are plump and ready for the knife. 
To appreciate the many good qualities of the Orpingtons, one should raise 
them, for he will then become acquainted with their beauty, gentle nature, 
and productiveness. They are a fowl that merits all the good things that 
breeders claim for them. 







IDEAL GOLDEN WYANDOTTE TRIO. 



There are few birds which excel the Ideal Golden Wyandotte. They 
have low rose combs which never freeze, are exceptionally good laye/s, and 



320 Rose-Conih Rhode Island Reds. 

are large enough to be good market birds. The hens make good mothers. 
The chicks are hardy and mature early, and when it comes to beauty no 
bird of paradise can excel a good Golden Wyandotte. It is difficult to de- 
cide which is the more beautiful, the male or the female. Personally, I 
prefer the female with her deep golden-bay centers, and each feather edged 
with a narrow strip of black. Don't be afraid to try Goldens; if you raise 
a good bird you can always sell them at a good price. The Golden of today 
is a bird of which we ought to be proud. The person who produces good 
birds can always find ready sale for them. Give the Goldens a trial and be 
convinced that they are one of the best of all purpose breeds in existence. 









,.^:t^ 




COPVRIOMT 1006 
l',CHA5L5TILE5CoLt,«B>/<>0 



IDEAL ROSE COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS. 

The Ehole Island Eeds are most beautiful and prolific birds, equally su- 
perior for layhig eggs, as well as for market for a table fowl. These birds 
should be introduced in the South, as they are ideal birds for warm climate 
and good layers in the winter. 0<ving to their pronounced character of 
cleanliness are remarkably free from disease. The hens are good sitters and 
mothers, and we can recommend these birds for an all-'round good variety. 



Huff M'jiaiuJoUcs. 



331 




IDEAL BUFF WYANDOTTE TRIO. 

The Wyandottes are becoming one of the most popular breeds, and aside 
from the Whites, the Buffs are the favorites. I breed a few because I like 
them and desire to keep in touch with the most perfect buff color, in order 
that I may judge them correctly at the shows. And then, these buff varieties 
do make the most agreeable sitters, sitting where you want them, and as 
mothers will hover and care for every chicken on the farm. They are prolific 
layers of nice brown-shelled eggs, and, when used for incubation during the 
spring and summer, will lay abundantly during the fall, when eggs are 
scarce and high. 



CLOVER FOR CHICKS. 

Every reader has found that chickens need green feed during the winter, 
but probably all do not know that the best substitute for green feed is 
well-cured clover hay. In a few weeks it will be time to cut and cure this 
hay for the poultry in the winter. The second crop is much better for the 
birds than the first, for the simple reason that it does not have to lay in 
the stack so long, ''^either is it so large and woody when cut. It may also 
contain a great deal of seed, a very valuable adjunct to any feed. 

When it is intended to cut clover for the poultry, the first crop should be 



322 



White Wyandottes. 




CHAS STlLEi 



IDEAL AVHITE WYANDOTTE TRIO. 

The White Wyandotte is strictly an American breed and the most popular 
fowl of toda3^ 

The origin of this variety is claimed to be from an albino from the Silver 
Wyandotte family; the males were firht to appear and these were mated 
with White Rocks, White Hamburgs and White Leghorns, and later to 
Light Brahma hens. 



cut for hay as soon as possible so the second crop will get a start before the 
summer rains cease and the weather turns dry. When the second crop of 
clover is ready to bloom it should be out. Some advise waiting until it 
is in bloom, but we have found that better results are realized by cutting it 
while the leaves and stems are tender, unless it is desired to have the blooms 
full of seed. 

As soon as the grass is cut, remove it to the shade where it should he 
spread till it has cured sufficiently to be stored in the hay mow. If tlie 
weather is unsettled it should be cured under cover, an empty corn crib 
being an ideal place for the curing. Clover cured in the shade is much 
better for poultry than that which is allowed to become partially bleached. 



Condimental Feeds. 323 

Thus it will bo seen the present \Vliite Wyandottes are composite in their 
make-up and a wonderful bird wc have from this mixed ancestry. 

With their pure white plumage, well-rounded, compact bodies, nice 
clean, yellow legs, low, well-set rose comb, and a deep bay eye, we have a 
bird for the eye to feast upon. 

Its laying qualities can't be beat, laying in coldest of weather, when eggs 
are high and the Leghorns are froze up. Surpasses the Eocks by far. 

In maturity, we have a finished bird in six months. Have had pullets 
laying before five months old. 

The popularity of the White W}andotte has become so great, the great call 
for show birds, that the demand is far ahead of the supply. A really good 
White Wyandotte is as salable as a $20.00 gold piece. 

For a market fowl they head the list, nice plump rounded bodies, with 
yellow skin, and can be brought to broiler age at eight to twelve weeks. The 
standard weight sare as follows: Cocks, 8I/2 pounds; cockerel, 71/^ pounds; 
hen, 6V2 pounds; pullet, 5i/^ pounds. 

The term cock means a male over a year old; cockerel, male under i 
year old ; hen, female over 1 year old, and pullet, female under 1 5'ear old. 



CONDIMENTAL FEEDS. 

After the hens have passed through the six to eight weeks laying period 
of the late winter, the three to six weeks incubation, and then five to eight 
weeks of brooding, their flesh and vigor are both run down. They need 
some kind of feed which will build up the system and start them to layingr; 
with flesh. It is for this purpose that the condimental feeds are fed. Con-- 
diments may be profitably used if fed judiciously any time after the later- 
part of April. Charcoal may not be, strictly speaking, a condimental 
feed, yet it should be fed quite heavily at this time to the hens which have 
just brought off a brood of chickens. Pepper is another ingredient that can 
be taken profitably into the ration. Only a little of it should be given, 
but the little is necessary to tone up the system. Feed not more than a 
fourth of a teaspoonful a week to each bird. Another feed beneficial at 
this time is made up of the following: Anise seed, two ounces; sulphur,, 
two ounces; cayenne pepper, five ounces; ginger, six ounces; salt, one- 
ounce; carbonate of iron, two ounces. Feed a teaspoonful in the soft feed 
for each dozen hens. Mix well with the feed so that each will get her 
share. Shut the chicks away from the hens when these feeds are given 
the latter. 



324 



White-Faced Blac Spanisli. 



Mm 




IDEAL WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH. 



The White Faced Black Spanish fowl is one of our oldest varieties of 
poultry, and while not as e>;tensively bred as many other varieties, it pos- 
sesses merit of a high order, both as a fancy and ntility fowl. 



FEEDING FOE SIZE. 

Some may be intersted in knowing how w^e feed for size. We 
induce exercise, but feed plentifully and make the diet as varied 
as possible. Milk, meat, grain and green food form the main basis 
of our feeding. Skimmed milk at 6 cents per gallon is a cheap food, and 
we also use quantities of thick sour milk. Practically no corn is fed our 
young stock until six months old. Bran and middlings are a daily portion 
of the diet and are kept before the chicks at all times in the dry state, but 
sometimes we moisten this mixture for a change. Have found whole oatt 
soaked in skim milk a great growth producer, but they should not be fed 
until chicks reach the age of six weeks. Charcoal, grit and cool water 
sliould not be forgotten. 



imODE TSLA^TI) KEDS. 




COkUf^OU^ OHlQ!« 



IDEAL KTIODL: ISLAND RED THIO. 

The outcome of the la?t meeting of the American Poultry Association, 
so far as the Ehodb Ishmd Keds are concerned, was most fortunate. The 
Single-Comb variety was admitted at Bochester, and was satisfied with gain- 
ing admission to the Standard. A year of storm, contention and determina- 
tion to win has made them so Mell known throughout the world as to give 
them an unusual boom. 

The Rhode Island Eeds are general purpose fowls of great merit. They 
have strength and vigor, are of quick growth, easily grown, lay a goodly 
number of fine-size eggs having the brown shell, and in every way except 
in perfect regularity of breeding as to feather, are attractive birds. 

In appearance, to the uneducated, the Single-Comb Rhode Island Red 
would be said to resemble the Plymouth Rock; the Rose-Comb Rhode 
Island Red to resemble the Wyandotte. While this is not exactly true, it 
not very far distance from the fact, generally speaking. The Single-Comb 
Rhode Island Red has, to the casual observer, very many of the same char- 
acteristics as the Plymouth Rock. They are large-size fowls, and should 
be of a deep cherry-red for a male and a brownish red or snuff color for 
the female. Both the Single and Rose-Comb varieties should have the same 



32() Rhode Island Reds. 

general formation and make up, the one with the single comb, the other with 
a comb like the Wyandotte comb. 

There are great possibilities for these two varieties as exhibition fowls. 
The greatest future, however, is claimed for them along the lines of egg- 
producing, market poultry. It is claimed that they are naturally great egg 
producers and always in perfect condition for the market or the table. 
Within reason too much cannot be said of their high qualities, but it is 
foolish and an extravagant statement for anv one to maintain that they 
are much better than any other kind of fowls. They are as good for the 
purpose as the Plymouth Eocks or the Wyandottes. Thety are very vigor- 
ous and attractive in every way as good utility purpose fowls. We do not 
think that their most enthusiastic admirers would claim them to be better 
than the Plymouth Eocks and Wyandottes. Be just in the estimation of 
the good qualities of all poultry, but do not claim unusual merit over others. 

We have just read an article in an agricultural paper which pictures the 
Ehode Island Eed in such a light as to lead the reader to believe that a few 
dollars invested in them would bring ten times as much as double the 
amount invested in any other poultry. Such statements have done con- 
siderable harm to the utility flocks upon the farms. Farmers have been 
induced to purchase some of every breed that comes along and mix it in 
with their farm flocks. The result has been poorly shaped and colored 
poultry, with irregularly shaped and badly colored eggs. It is impossible 
to intermingle the blood of so many varieties without interfering with the 
general make up of the product and detracting from .the appearance and 
value of the eggs produced. 

Whenever the farmer, the suburban or the city poultry-grower desires to 
raise poultry for the best results, he should select some one kind and stick 
to it in its purity, whether it be Ehode Island Eeds, Plymouth Eocks or 
Wyandottes. If a change is made, change the entire flock for some other 
kind, and stick to that. Do not mix and intermingle everything you hear 
of into your flocks. 

KHODE ISLAND RED FOWLS. 

One of the varieties which stands in the front ranks of the feathered 
tribe is the Ehode Island Eeds, which were flrst raised in /Little Compton, 
E. I., by William Tripp and Isaac Wilbour, who gave them their name 
in 1886. Back in 1854 John McComber of Westport, and William Tripp 
really made the start in the breed by crossing a Chitagong cock with the 
Cochin China hens. 

In the State of Ehode Island there is a large number of people who raise 
this variety exclusively, and on their large farms keep hundreds of these 



Rose-Comb White Leghorns. 



327 



handsome red fowls. F. W. C. Almy, proprietor of the Eed Feather farm 
at Tiverton Four Corners, R. I., is one of the leading breeders in his State 
of this popular variety and keeps 1800 fowls on his place which are probably 
second to none. During the past fall he sold 30,000 eggs for setting, which 
were from 80 to 87 per cent fertile. At present he is getting about 600 eggs 
per day. Mr. Almy has shipped the past fall over 400 birds to all parts of 
the country, and it is the same with this leading breeder of the Reds as 
with scores of others that the demand is rapidly increasing. Quite a little 
of Mr. Almy's stock has been shipped to this section of the State during the 
past few years, and they have not only proved prize winners, but splendid 
breeders. — Pittsfield (Mass.) Journal. 




IDEAL ROSE COMB WHITE LEGHORN TRIO. 

These handsome birds are of medium size, persistent as layers, being 
poor sitiers or non-sitters, having fair fattening qualities and very good 
flesh. They are besides hardy, suffering from severe weather much less 
than the Spanish. With this breed they are evidently closely allied, all 
having single combs, large white ear-lobes, and in many cases partly white 
faces, and in the best specimens something of the style of that justly 
favorite breed. This variety may be highly recommended for general use, 
and where a superior chicken is desired. 



MAMMOTH BRONZE TURKEYS. 







TURKEYS. 

The Bronze Turkey is the leader of all breeds of turkeys. Beautiful 
in plumage; it glistens in the sunlight like burnished gold. Wliere ample 
range can be had the raising of turkeys becomes very profitable and is 
rapidly gaining favor. They are very hardy after six or seven weeks old; 
the young poults must not be allowed to run out in wet weather until that 
age. When bred to standard their weights are: cock, 26 pounds; hen, 
16 pounds. Well matured males often reach the enormous size of 40 
and 45 pounds. 



TURKEYS PROFITABLE. 

NOT HARD TO RAISE IF THE NATURE OF THE FOWL IS STUDIED, 

No branch of poultry culture is so much neglected as the raisins^ of tur- 
keys. I believe this is accounted for by the mistaken idea which gen- 
erally prevails that turkeys are very hard to raise, and that the breeder 
must expect to lose at least half or three-fourths of the young birds that 
are hatched, says Mrs. Charles Jones in Successful Poultry Journal. 

I have been raising turkeys for a good many years, and at the beginning 
I expected to, and did, lose a large number of birds. I began to carefully 
study the trouble, knowing that there could be no effect without a cause, 
and that turkeys, if hatched strong and healthy, should live with the same 



TurTceys Profitable. 329 

treatment that nature had laid down for that class of fowls. In cases 
where this heavy loss occurs, it is nearly always the result of methods of 
feeding, provided the young birds are hatched in perfect health. The old 
method was to keep them cooped and fed u] on sour milk curd as a steady 
diet, without grit' of any kind to aid digestion. The belief was that the 
birds themselves could select the necessary grit. This might be all right 
on the old New Hampshire gritty hills, but upon our prairie soil it is an- 
other question. 

Turkeys in their wild state pick up worms, grasshoppers and other 
animal food, and grit is absolutely necessary for them, I read everything 
I could find on turkey raising, and finally adopted the following methods 
of feeding: As the birdb must have some form of meat food or its 
equivalent, I prepare eggs by putting them in cold water and bringing it 
to a boil, which is continued from half an hour to an hour. This mode 
of cooking makes the eggs crumbly instead of leathery, as is the case when 
they are put into boiling water at the start. Turkeys are disposed to 
liver diseases and any food that will keep the liver in good condition will 
keep the birds healthy. T feed them eggs chopped up, shell and all, with 
a little chick grit for the first two da^'s. I then chop dandelion leaves with 
the egg, and add the sour milk curd with always a little grit, in the morn- 
ing. At noon I feed a little curd, and at night I chop onions in the place 
of dandelion. In this way I succeed in raising all the chicks that I hatch 
without tho loss of a single one. 

I keep them clean and free from lice and make their food about half green 
food of some kind, as this helps to grow large frames. Care should be 
taken to not feed all that they will eat at any one time, as overfeeding 
will easily kill the young ones. Many breeders who have adopted this 
method of feeding have written me that their birds do well, and that 
there are no losses where overfeeding is not practiced. I feed only two 
eggs to about fifty young turkeys, at each feeding, although three or four 
might not be too many, if plenty of green food is used. I feed only three 
times a day and call them back to their coops each time; this prevents 
them from getting the habit of wandering away. I raise them in the 
breeding yards until they are six weeks or two months old, at which time 
they are no longer contented to stay there, and it is necessary to allow 
them range for foraging. For the first four days I always coop them 
in large, airy coops, in which fresh air is secured by tacking on v/ire net- 
ting on one side of the coop, where a large opening- has been made. The 
coop should be moved one length each morning when the turkeys arc 
turned out of it, as it is not advisable to allow them to roost on the same 
ground two nights in succession. 



330 Raising Foung Turkeys. 

Nature seems to have endowed the birds with this intelligence, as it 
is impossible to drive a turkey into a very filthy coop if there is any way 
for them to evade it. If more turkeys were raised on farms of the United 
States there would be very little complaint of crops being destroyed by 
grasshoppers and all kinds of injurious insects. Turkeys are of a roving- 
disposition and will live largely on that class of food. It is interesting 
to watch them when going out into the fields or returning home at night. 
The flock spreads out, covering a good many rods of ground, and the birds 
are quick to devour anything in the nature of insect life which com.es in 
their wa}^, and it is very little that escapes their quick observation. A farmer 
will find by giving the matter a little study and investigation that the turkey 
is the best friend he could get to prevent damage to his crop. I always 
drive the young birds into the coops about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, until 
such time as they have learned to come in for their last meal of their own 
accord. After they have been taught this, they can be left out a longer 
time, and may be depended upon to return at somewhere near the regular 
meal time. They can also be taught to return at the call of the attendant. 
Low root^ts are arranged in the breeding yard, and when the birds have been 
taught to come home to roost themselves, they are practically raised. We 
do not feed them anything after this time until the ground freezes hard 
so they can no longer get their living by securing it from the fields. Dur- 
ing the fi,rst six weeks they should be gone over once a week and dusted 
with some good lice powder, not neglecting the larger quill feathers on the 
wing, which is one of the favorite hiding places for these pests. The heads 
of the birds should also bo greased lightly with some sort of ointment 
that will kill the lice. I seldom lose a bird except by accident. 



EAISING YOUNG TURKEYS. 

In almost everything that is written for the poultry journals in regard 
to the hatching and rearing of young turkeys, one will find the advice: 
"Always let the turkey hen hatch and take care of the young ponlts." I 
cannot agree with this advice, and think this one of the greatest causes 
of failure to raise the young poults to maturity. My experience has been 
that Avhen hatched and mothered by chicken hens, I can raise almost all 
and often every one of a hatch, while if the turkey hen is allowed to 
wander away with them I consider her lucky if she raises one-third of 
all she hatches. 



Turkeys. 331 

The principal cause of ihis is the young turkey cannot stand to be led 
around .through the wet grass before the dew is off, and that's the way 
the mother turkey always does. So my advice is: Select a quiet old 
hen to set on your turkey eggs. When the little turkeys are thirty-six 
hours old, or over, remove from the nest, dust the hen thoroughly with 
insect powder and put in a dry, sunny place, facing the east. Shut the 
hen in a coop and have a small yard for the babies to exercise in. 

The first feed, wliich should never be given until they are thirty-six 
hours old, should consist of hard boiled eggs, four times daily, just what 
they will eat clean and no more. Keep clean water, ground oyster shells 
and plenty of green grass before them at all times. After they are four 
days old change the eggs to curds and stale bread soaked in sweet milk. 

Here is another important item : You will need plenty of sour milk 
on hand to make the curds, as the growing turkeys have a simply won- 
derful appetite, and I have found they prefer this food to all others, and 
that they thrive on it better than on any other food I have yet tried. In 
fact they will not eat grain as long as they can get the curds. 

As they become older, gradually change their feed to wheat, oats and 
whole corn. Oats make a splendid food for growing turkeys, as they con- 
lain a large proportion of phosphorous, which makes them large, strong- 
honed and vigorous. After they are six weeks old they will begin to wan- 
der over the fields and woods in search of food, but should be fed grain 
eveiy night when they come home, as this keeps them from wandering ofF 
to the neighbors. 



TURKEYS. 



If very often occurs that two or more hens will lay in the same nest, a 
proceeding which will prove very annoying and try your patience if you 
are expecting to set one of the hens. If you should not be in a position 
to conveniently yard your laying turkeys, there will be danger of your 
driving some of the layers off to parts unknown in trying to break them 
from the habit of laying in this particular nest. To relieve the danger 
of driving the hens off to parts unknown, for suitable nesting places, a 
nest may be made near the one generally used, furnished with nest eggs, 
and the hens are very likely to take to them, avoiding a change of nests. 
A turkey hen, we find, will sit much better on the nest where she has laid 
her clutch of eggs, consequently we use every precaution not to get the 
hen disturbed previous to incubation. It is best, however, not to disturb 
the hen after incubation lias begun. If for any reason you find it neces- 



332 Turkeys and Their Nests. 

ary to visit the sitting turkey hen (or nest, ratlier), always make your 
visit at a time when the lien is absent. Otherwise you are liable to destroy 
the entire clutch of eggs, especially if your hen is of a "highstrung," timid 
nature. May is the month that should find the majority of the turkey 
eggs incubated, and the poults well started out on the season's campaign, 
battling for existence with lice, rats, crows, hawks, old sows and the good 
Lord knows what all. 

When we think of the many obstacles in the way of the young turkey 
poults they are compelled to contend with before they ever reach maturity 
it seems as if it is almost a miracle performed in maturing a turkey. Yet 
turkeys as a rule are naturally more easily raised than most any other do- 
mestic fowl, but where the trouble corns in, they seem to have =o many 
more enemies, and there is the danger of over-feeding. 



TURKEYS AND THEIH NESTS. 

Turkeys like to hide their nests in the bushes or hedgerow. I have 
found it a good plan to fix nests for them early in the season, quite a little 
while before they begin laying, so they will have time to get used to them, 
says a writer in Farm and Home. A good way to make a turkey's nest 
is to use a barrel. Take a board six or eight inches wide and two and a half 
feet long. Lay on its side on a level spot of ground, and place the board 
at the bottom side of the front, letting it extend equal lengths on each 
side of the barrel and nail fast with long, slim nails. This forms a rest 
that will make the barrel stand firm and not shake or roll around wlien the 
bird is inside. 

An open box about two feet square with one side knocked ofp makes a 
good nest for a turkey. Hide in the hedgerow or among the bushes near 
the house and put some nice clean straw in it. The turkeys will soon 
find it and choose it for a nest. 

It is always best to set turkeys on the ground. The eggs hatch better 
and the birds are stronger. These covered nests are quite a protection, 
especially from robber crows, who dearly love eggs. 

Sometimes a laying hen will adopt this nest and the turkey seeing her 
there will lay in the same nest. When this occurs it is a good plan to let 
them lay their litter out together, removing all the eggs except the nest 
egg each day. When tliey begin to sit shut up the hen and let the turkey 
hatch her own eggs, or break up the turkey and let her lay another setting 
of eggs and let the chicken-hen do the hatching. The turkey-hen will 
begin laying again in ten or twelve days. 



Guinea Fowls. 



333 



I find it a good ] Ian to set a chiekcn-hcn and a turkey-hen at tlic same 
time and give all the young birds to the turkey-hen after they are hatched. 
The first food given them had better be hard boiled eggs chopped fine, 
soaked bread crumbs and well cooked cheese curds sprinkled with a littla 
black pepper. Mix with their food occasionally some finely chopped onion 
tops, of which they are very fond and seem to thrive on. Let the turkey 
hen run on the grass as soon as the little birds are strong enough to- 
follow her to catch bugs and grasshoppers, which are their best food. 







GUINEA FOWL. 

Among all domestic birds the Guinea fowls are the most shy and peculiar 
breeds, half wild, ever active, upon the approach of a stranger or any danger 
with a shrill cry they will sound the warning note, and even this charac- 
teristic is often useful on the farm against hawks and other varmints 
preying upon the poultry yard. The eggs of the Guineas are smaller and 
darker than hen eggs and are not a very desirable market variety. On 
account of the dark meat and gamy flavor the Guinea fowls are becoming 
quite popular, and are gaining in favor every season for shipment to 
large markets in the Xorth. The usual marketing age of Guineas is from 
5 to 8 months old. Where a pair formerly sold in large markets for from 
50 to 7oc per pair they now bring from $1 to $1.50 per pair. Guineas 
may be profitably reared on Southern farms, orchards and gardens, as they 
are a great help to keep down the insect pest. 



334 Milk' Cliick'ens. 

With respect to Guinea fowl, the analyses show that the flesh is more 
like ducks and geese, which are on an average richer in fat. Judged hy 
chemical composition, the Guinea fowl, like other poultry, is a valuable 
and nutritious article of diet, and is commonly conceded to be very palat- 
able, resembling game quite closely. 

On the basis of experience a Southern poultry raiser considers that it is 
best to raise Guinea chicks with a common hen or turkey as a mother, 
particularly since they can be kept out of wet grass and weeds in the early 
morning more readily than when hatched by Guinea hens. In the experi- 
ence of this writer attacks of mites and lice more often end fatally witli 
Guinea fowls than with other poultry, and whitewashing the trunks and 
branches of the trees where they roost is recommended. This writer also 
believes that after laying, sitting, and molting the Guinea hens should be 
caught and dipped in water and grease to free them from vermin. 

Another poultry raiser on the basis of personal experience recommends 
for newly hatched Guineas a coop 8 or ten feet long, 5 feet wide, and about 
2 feet high, covered on the sides with 1-inch mesh wire netting and on the 
top with 2-inch mesh netting. This coop, which can be easily moved from 
place to place, has a door in one end, and in bad weather can be covered 
on top with boards. If fed in the coop and fastened in so that they will 
roost there, the chicks will readily learn to return to the coop at night. 

In buying some new poultry fall stock don't overlook the fact that 
Guinea fowls are both profitable and useful. For table use they have few 
superiors and their flesh has almost the same flavor as the prairie chicken. 



MILK CHICKENS. 

The raising of little chicks, or "milk chickens," is a branch of the 
poultry business which yields a quick profit, but it has not been exploited 
to any great extent in this country. These dainty little birds are great 
favorites in Belgium and in France. Most of those which appear on the 
tables in those countries are originated from "milk chicks." There is an 
increasing demand for "milk chickens" at the health resorts and at the 
wealthier towns which might all be met by local poultry keepers. 

The cliickens used for this purpose should be hatched in March or April, 
as the trade does not extend beyond the last of August. Nothing but soft 
food should be given the birds, such as ground oats, or better still, oatmeal 
with a little salt added during the last two weeks of feeding. Sand, or a 
little fine grit, should be supplied. 



Ducks. 



335 







DUCKS, 



Ducks are useful and profitable farm birds, especially where a pond or 
water is accessible to these water fowls. While the eggs of the ducks are 
slow sale they are very nutritious and are preferrrd by many even to 
chicken eggs. The main profit from ducks is derived as a meat bird for 
fall and winter trade. The Pekin Duck is a large and more showy duck 
than the common duck, and the meat of the Pekin Duck, on account of its 
gamy flavor is in better demand than the common duck. 

As the true Pekin Duck is a non-sitter, incubation must be done by a 
chicken hen. Have the nest on, or as near the ground as possible; if in a 
fence corner, or in the weeds so much the better, though be careful of 
stray dogs. After the first week, watch the hen closely, and every time she 
comes off the nest to feed, sprinkle the eggs with luke warm water; don't 
be afraid to wet them. 

On the morning of the twenty-eighth day remove all the ducklings as 
soon as hatched, and assist any that are having difficulty in making their 
appearance. When all hatchables are hatched, take all the ducklings and 
keep in a basket, or box, for a few days. Shut the hen up to break her 
of her broody spell, for if you want to raise your ducks don't allow the 
hen to carry them. She will run and tramp them to death scratching. 
Wlio ever saw a duck scratch in straw or dirt? 



33(5 



Toulouse Geese. 







TCULODSE GEESE. 

The Toulouse Geese are purely French bred. Both male and female are 
very massive in proportion. The bill and feet are dark orange color; head, 
neck and back a dark gray, breast light gray, but descending lighter till 
beyond the legs to the tail they are pure white. The combination of colors 
presents a very attractive appearance. 

Both male and female are uniform in color, being alike to a feather. 
They live to a great old age; some having reported them living and doing 
well at the age of thirty j'ears. Goose raising is very profitable, as they 
need no grain in the summer, when they can have plenty of grass to feed 
on, and are small feeders in winter. Now while the expense is so light to 
keep them, and you can on the other hand pick their feathers four times 
in one season, making two pounds of feathers from one goose, which are 
worth from $1 to $1.50, besides the young you can raise, the profit is large. 
The widght of an adult goose is 23 pounds, gander 25 pounds. 



NEXT WINTEE'S LAYEES. 

Pullets cannot stand any set backs, and must be kept growing from the 
day they are hatched until they are placed in the laying quarters. There 
is no secret about the matter. At no time in their lives must they be over- 
crowded. Plenty of room, so that they can have plenty of exercise;, is not 
only desirable, but imperative. 



Preserving Eggs. 337 

Pullets for profit should be kept tame. Wild, scary birds never amount 
to much; the egg crop depends upon tlie amount of confidence and com- 
fort the hens, old or young, possess. Each must be active and be made to 
take all the exercise possible. This advice has been given time and again, 
and quite frequently neglected. The best exercise is a search for food. 

For future layers select only the best devloped birds and discard the 
runts. We do not believe in an egg type, but do pin our faith to size, 
vigor and health. Pullets when selected for future work should be yarded 
alone. The best success is attained when no more than four or five brooders 
are placed in one house. Where there is too great a number the result 
will be the same as when there are too many old birds kept in one house. 
They will cause the air to be too foul and disease will be the result. Usually 
about thirty to fifty chicks are placed in each brooder, and when more than 
five brooders are in one house it can be seen that it will not take long for 
the air to become too impure for the chicks. 

The house should be built with the windows to the south, as sunlight 
can be easily admitted. The windows should be large, as the larger they 
are the more sunlight will be admitted and the warmer the room will be 
during cold weather. It is not necessary to provide any other heat except 
that furnished by the lamp in each brooder. 



PEESERVING EGGS. 



I read an article in "The Kansas Farmer" some time ago in regard to 
preserving eggs in water-glass. As I have forgotten the recipe will you 
please state how much to use in 3, 5 or 10 gallons of water? About what 
does it cost per gallon, and is it against the pure food law? Can I use 
a barrel or galvanized tub to pack the eggs in, or does it require stone 
jars? Please state all you can so I may pack a few and see how they will 
do. What is a good remedy for chicken roup? — W. 0. Phillips, Eooks 
County. 

Answer. — Water-glass is silicate of soda, and comes in dry or liquid 
form. It is better to buy it in the liquid state. It can be bought at 
from 60 to 80 cents per gallon, depending on the drug store you buy it 
from, and also on the quantity you purchase. The directions for use are: 
Use pure water that has been thoroughly boiled and cooled. To each quart 
of water-glass use ten quarts of water, or if in gallons, ten gallons of 
water to one gallon of water-glass. Pack the eggs in a jar and pour the 
solution over them. The solution may be prepared, placed in the jar av.d 



338 



White Plymouth Rods. 



fresh eggs added from time to time until the jar is filled, but care must 
be taken that all the eggs should be covered with the solution at all times. 
Keep the jars in a cool place, with covers over them, to prevent evapora- 
tion. A cool cellar is a good place in which to keep the eggs. If the egg& 
are kept in too warm a place, the silicate will be deposited at the bottom 
of the jars, and the eggs will not be properly protected. Do not wash 
the eggs before packing, for by so doing you will injure their keeping quali- 
ties. For packing, use only perfectly fresh eggs, for eggs that have already 
become stale cannot be preserved by this or any other method, and one 




WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK TRIO. 



stale egg will spoil the whole batch. Barrels or galvanized tubs can be 
used, provided they are perfectly clean, for any odor that may be in a 
barrel is liable to be communicated to the eggs. We do not believe there 
would be any conflict with the pure food laws, for the solution does not 
amalgamate with egg, but simply acts as a preservative, the same as a 
sealed can does to preserve fruit. 

One of the best remedies for roup is Conkey's Eoup Cure. 



STAETING AN INCUBATOE. 

It is a o;reat saving of time and oil in the start if the water for the 
tank is first heated to the boiling point before being put into the incubator. 
Tully ten or sometimes twenty-four hours may thus be saved, since water 
heats much more slowly in the machine than in the tea kettle. 



THE DUST BATH. 



The dust bath is one of the essentials to maintain a poultry flock. In 
hot weather, unless the weather is Avet, the dusting place should be out of 
doors under a tree, if convenient. Dig the soil deep and mellow, and work 
it over frequently. A little sifted wood ashes may be added with benefit 
This will save you much trouble with the lice and mites, although I should 
not depend upon it entirely, for in very hot weather the mites will hatch 
and increase faster tlian the hen can rid herself of them. 



GEEEN STUFF FOE CHICKS. 

The Washington correspondent, Guy E. Mitchell, is responsible for the 
following : 

"An excellent green food for young chicks can easily be provided through 
the expenditure of a few cents for oats. A half bushel of oats should be 
placed in a shallow box so that the entire mass is two to four inches deep. 
This should be sprinkled with water daily until the seeds have become satur- 
ated, when they will sprout and continue to send up tender green shoofcf.. 
Very young stock may be fed the shoots only, when older chicks can be 
given seed and all.'' 

Our chicks are out on free range, and they find young clover leaves, the 
blades of tender grasses, chick weed and many other succulent and palat- 
able weeds, and from now on until fall, we will have no trouble in pro- 
viding green stuff. Sometimes we have to keep the old fowls in a yard. 
In that case, or where such a course is usually necessary, lawn clippings, 
weeds from the garden, beet tops, the old lettuce plants and waste, over- 
grown cabbage plants, and many similar things can be utilized to give 
to both old and young fowls the succulent green stuff needed. At the 
Cornell station grounds at Ithaca, we found rape as one of the crops 
grown and used with much success for feeding to chickens in confinement. 
An immense amount of such stuff can be grown on a little patch in the 
garden, or out of the way corner. 



340 To Increase Egg Laying. 

Many farmers neglect their opportunities. They ought to know that 
hens will pay as well as their cows, sheep and hogs. Eggs are always 
salable at a profit in summer as Avell as in winter. If prices should go 
down too low, he can preserve them for higher prices. In eggs alone he 
can be assured of a very fair income. 



Milk fed to hens will be found to be more profitable than if fed to 
hogs. It is admirably adapted to egg-production as well as for growing 
chicks. It may be placed in the drinking vessels, or scalded to mix the soft 
food with. Sour milk, skim milk, clabber, all are good and greatly relished 
by the fowls. It takes the part to a great extent of animal food and meat, 
and the latter may be dear and hard to get, whereas skim milk may be 
plentiful. Feed it, therefore, to all kinds of chickens, young and old. 



An experienced turkey raiser says that young turkeys should not be fed 
any corn, cracked or whole, till after they have "sported the red." When 
turkeys get to be about three months old the down on their heads and 
"necks is replaced by corrugations of flesh (comb and wattles) ; these as 
they become older become red, and it is called "sporting the red." After 
this time turkeys become very hardy, and are rarely troubled thereafter 
with any disease. 



There is a handsome profit in growing broilers and capons, but con- 
siderable experience is required in both branches before the balance is on 
the right side of the ledger. The chief danger lies in the fact that inex- 
perienced people will make a specialty of either to the exclusion of the 
regular breadwinning poultry culture. In caponizing it takes an expert, 
and then there must be a special demand or market for them or prices 
commensurate with their cost cannot be secured. 



TO INCREASE EGG LAYING. 

A significant statement in Secretary Wilson's report shows that investi- 
gations are now being made by the department of agriculture in conjunc- 
tion with the Maine experiment station with a view of developing a strain 
of chickens with increased egg-laying capacity. Several hens have been 
found to lay more than two hundred eggs in one year, and the results 
seem to indicate that by selecting and properly feeding the best layers for 
breeding purposes the average egg yield of a flock can be increased. 



How to Dress and Ship Poultry. 341 

Poultry, says the secretary, is one of the steady and lielpful sources 
of farm income. Movements are already on foot which may be expected 
to increase the egg production per hen by at least a. dozen a yea)' within 
a generation, and there are poultrymen who are not enthusiasts who fore- 
tell double that increase. If the hens of this year had each laid a dozen 
eggs more than they did the prediction is made by Secretary Wilson that 
the increased value of this product M'ould have been possibly $50,000,000. 

With eggs as low as a cent apiece — a very cheap and nutritious food — a 
well-bred hen laying two hundred eggs a year, as developed at the Maine 
station, will have a value of $2. An estimate is made that $1 a year will 
keep her in comfortable if not luxurious quarters. The trouble is that 
millions of barnyard scrubs do not yield a hundred eggs a year. If one 
wants to obtain eggs from his hens it is necessary to have healthy, vigorous 
stock properly fed. To do their best, hens should be fed grain, animal 
and green food. They should be fed enough to keep them in good condi- 
tion, but not overfat, and should be induced to take plenty of exercise. 

A good sj'stem to follow for winter feeding is mash once a day and grain 
scattered in the litter twice a day. The mash may be fed dry or slighlty 
moistened. When the former, it is usually put into a trough or hopper 
hung against the wall, and the fowls allowed to have access to it at all 
times. A mash at the Maine station is as follows: Two hundred pounds 
wheat bran, one hundred pounds each of cornmeal, wheat middlings, lin- 
seedmeal, gluten-meal, and beef scraps. Another mash may be mixed as 
follows: One hundred pounds each of cornmeal, ground oats, and wheat 
bran. 



HOW TO DEESS AND SHIP POUtt^TEY. 

In the first place, poultry should be well fed and well watered and then 
kept from 18 to 24 hours without food before killing. Stock dresses out 
brighter when well watered and adds to the appearance. Full crops injure 
the appearance and are liable to sour, and when this does occur corres- 
pondingly lower prices must be accepted than obtainable for choice stock. 
Never kill poultry by wringing neck. 

TO DRESSS CHICKENS. 

Kill by bleeding in mouth or opening the veins of the neck; hang by 
the feet until properly bled. 'Leave head and feet on and do not remove 
intestines nor crop. Scalded chickens sell best. For scalding chickens the 
water should be as near the boiling point as possible without boiling — 100 



342 How to Dress and Ship Poultry. 

to 175 degrees Farlienheit. Pick the legs before scalding; hold by the head 
and legs and immerse and lift up and down five or six times ; if the head 1;^ 
immersed it turns tjje color of the comb and gives the eyes a shrunken 
appearance, which leads buyers to think that the fowl has been sick; the 
feathers and pin feathers should then be removed immediately, while the 
body is warm, very cleanly and without breaking the skin; then "plump"' 
by dipping ten seconds in water nearly quite boiling hot, and then imme- 
diately ino cold water; hang in a cool place (or better, place on shelves in 
the shape you wish them to appear when cooled — hanging draws the breast 
muscles and makes them look thinner when cool and harder to pack) until 
the animal heat is entirely out of the body. To dry pick chickens properly, 
the work should be done while the chickens are bleeding; do not wait and 
let the bodies get cold. Dry picking is much more easily done while the 
bodies are warm. Be careful and do not break and tear the skin. 

TO DRESS TURKEYS. 

Observe the same instructions as given for preparing chickens, but always 
dry pick. Pick when warm to avoid tearing. The tail feathers come oil 
with a twist — a straight pull will "set" them. Dressed turkeys, when dry 
picked, always sell best and command better prices than scalded lots, as 
the appearance is brighter and more attractive. Endeavor to market all 
old and heavy gobblers before January 1, as after the holidays the demand 
is for small fat hen turkeys only, old Toms being sold at a discount to 
canners. 

DUCKS AND GEESE. 

They should be scalded in the same temperature of water as for other 
kinds of poultry, but it requires more time for the water to penetrate and 
loosen the feathers. Some parties advise after scalding, to wrap them in 
a blanket for the purpose of steaming, but they must not be left in this 
condition long enough to cook the flesh. Do not undertake to dry pick ducks 
and geese just after killing for the purpose of saving the feathers, as it 
causes the skin to become very much inflamed, and is a great injury to the 
sale. Do not pick the feathers off the head. Leave the feathers on for 
two or three inches on the neck. Do not singe the bodies for the purpose of 
removing any down or hair, as the heat from the flame will give them an 
oily and imsightly appearance. After they are picked clean they should 
be held in scalding water about ten seconds for the purpose of plumping, 
and then rinsed off in clean cold water. Fat heavy stock is always preferred. 

Before packing and shipping, poultry should be thoroughly dry and cold, 
but not frozen; the animal heat should be entirely out of the body; pack 



4 Keep the Chicks Growing. Mo 

in boxes or barrels, and see that packages are clean, lining them with manila 
or straw paper; boxes holding 100 to 200 i ounds are preferable, and pack 
snugly; straighten out the body and legs so that they will not arrive very 
much bent and twisted out of shape; fill the packages as full u? possil)]e 
to prevent moving about on the way ; barrels answer better for chickens and 
ducks than for turkeys or geese; when convenient, avoid putting more 
than one kind in a package; mark kind and weight of each description on 
the package and mark shipping directions plainly on the cover. 

HOW TO DRESS CAPONS. 

First be sure and not kill them until crops are empty and they are fat. 
A thin capon is not as good as an ordinary chicken, because if not large 
or a proper capon, they are not wanted as capons or chickens either. Leave 
feathers on neck from head down two-thirds way to shoulders. Leave feath- 
ers on tail and half way up the back. Leave feathers on legs from knee 
Joint two-thirds up the hips. All the rest of the feathers come off. Feath- 
ers that are removed should be saved and will sell if kept dry and clean. 
Be careful and keep the capon clean. Wrap paper around head. Appear- 
ances add to the sale and, of course, price. 



KEEP THE CHICKS GROWING. 

Overfeeding is a common cause of a chec]; of growth, but is a serious 
waste of foods which costs money. It may seem odd to some that growing 
chicks can possibly be overfed, but they are much more frequently than 
we think. A successful chicken raiser in New Jersey told me that his 
greatest trouble was to guard against overfeeding; that a chick that ate 
too much was dumpish for a day or two and the growth stopped for that 
time. His rule was to shut off the food from a pen where any food 
was left uneaten ten minutes after they had been fed, and let them rest 
up a bit. The only safe rule for feeding is to feed a little at a time and 
feed often, and the real difficulty is to feed the little. In our desire to 
have the youngsters make a good growth we are apt to put down just a 
little more, and then we have done mischief by overfeeding! If we could 
only rfialize that overfeeding is really a cruelty to the chicks as well as a 
waste of food, we would be more considerate. The advice of an old and 
most successful chicken and duck grower is to keep them just a little 
hungry, which is but another form of the rule given by Franklin for 
humans to follow, namely, "Else from the table with still a little appetite 
remaining." That is common sense for both human and chickens, and if 



'344 Feeding Little Chicks. 

we would apply it to feeding the youngsters, not only would they make 
a better growth, but would come to maturity in sounder physical condition, 
with stronger constilutions. 

Lice most certainly cause much loss of growth in the chicks, and de- 
cidedly lower the constitutional vigor. One argument in favor of hatching 
the chicks in brooders is that they are then free from lice, so long as they 
are kept away from contact with lousy hens. Chickens hatched by hens 
may be practically free from lice if the mother hen is well dusted with a 
good insect powder three times, about a week apart, during the three weeks 
of sitting. This dusting, if thoroughly done, will kill all the lice then 
alive on the hen, but cannot reach the "nits" (eggs), which arc to be seen 
clustered around the shafts of the feathers, close to the hen's body. Shortly 
these nits hatch out another flock of lice, which begin to reproduce their 
kind in a few days, and the hen becomes populous again; honce the advice 
to dust the hen three times, about a week apart, and thus catch the newly 
hatched lice before they have reached maturity and laid more nits. We 
want to emphasize the idea of a "good" insect powder because, unfor- 
tunately, some of the insect powders on the market are very much adul- 
terated and are less effective than they should be. 

Eternal vigilance is the price we must pay for the success with poultry, 
and it is the best success that gives both personal satisfaction and the best 
profits. That, after all, is the last analysis of all our effort — the cash profit 
that results. Every observing poultry grower knows that the strong con- 
stitutioned and splendidly vigorous birds are the ones that pay us best, 
and those are the birds that are well hatched and well grown, that have 
Buffered no check to growth from the time they left the shells till they have 
reached maturity. 



FEEDING LITTLE CHICKS. 

Some months ago I was requested by the editor of the Inland to give my 
method of feeding chicks. This could be done in a very few words, but it 
is a different undertaking to outline all those conditions necessary to suc- 
cess in the rearing of chicks. This is more especially true where chicks are 
to be raised in any considerable numbers. And so much has been written 
on this subject that it places an inexperienced writer in a position that may 
subject him to much imdesirable criticism. Many years of actual experi- 
ence has convinced me that the following conditions, when closely adhered 
to, will produce satisfactory results, and may be adopted by the farm 
poultrymen. We must first look to the fowls that are to produce the eggs 



Feeding Little Chicks. 345 

that wo are to place in the incubators. All females should be carefully 
selected, excluding from the breeding pens all that are not in a strong, 
healthy condition. The same care must be given to the selection of male 
birds. Double mating is regarded with favor. Fowls that have been 
closely confined for several weeks seldom produce strongly fertilized eggs. 
Much better hatches can be secured if the incubators are not filled until 
the hens have been allowed outdoor range for a few days and the chicks 
will be much stronger and better able to make a good start. 

With eggs from healthy stock we are now ready to turn our attention 
to the incubating of our eggs. Here I have to consider what I say will be 
read by those operating the hot water, hot air, the non-moisture, the 
delusive and all other kinds of incubators, most of which will be found 
more or less satisfactory or otherwise according to the care and attention 
of fowls, eggs and incubator. Cleanliness in the incubator and the incu- 
bator room is very important. Have incubator regulated at one hundred 
before eggs are placed in the incubator, and do not allow them to go above 
103 for the first week. Do not attempt to hatch light and dark shell eggs 
in an incubator at the same time. Under such circumstances good results 
are seldom attained. Test the eggs frequently, removing from the incu- 
bator all that are not strong and healthy. Turn the eggs in the morning, 
fill lamps at noontime, turn and cool the eggs to 80 or 85 degrees at eve- 
ning. Under ordinary weather conditions we are earnest advocates of 
some moisture after the twelfth day and always at time of hatching. Doors 
to egg chamber of incubator must be kept closed from and after the eggs 
commence to pip. Stop all possible escape of warm, moist air from the 
incubator at any point above the egg trays, and if your incubators have no 
openings for air from the bottom, make some and leave them open at all 
times, as oxygen is as necessary at time of hatching as after the chickens 
are'in the brooder; the lack of oxygen always produces a puny chick that 
will never make satisfactory growth. We now take the chicks from the 
incubator, having provided proper brooders for their accommodation with- 
out crowding, dividing them into broods of not more than fifty for each 
brooder. We give them a small amount of fine pearl chick grit. After this 
a moderate feed of hard boiled egg and bread crumbs. At the same time we 
place in each brooder two or more small wall trays where the chickens can 
reach them and we keep the following mixture constantly before them for 
the next two months : Two pounds wheat bran, two pounds fine cracked 
corn, one pound of oat flake, one pound granulated bone, one pound beef 
scraps and one-half pound fine pear chick grit. This should be well mixed, 
and a fresh supply placed in the brooder every night. I do not know that 



34G Plum Trees in Poultry Yard. 

this is a balanced ration, but I positively know that chicks made to depend 
largely upon this diet thrive and are almost immune from bowel trouble. 
They are allowed to eat of this freely in the morning and are then given a 
little feed of cracked grains or any of the good chick feeds. When ten 
days old we commence to feed a mash of equal parts of wheat bran and chop, 
made by grinding equal parts of corn and oats together and a small amount 
of meat meal and bone; mix and pour scalding water on sufficient to wet 
it up, but do not make it mushy, letting it stand until it cools down until 
right to feed; never give tbem all that they will eat of this. Lefive them 
a little hungry. At night all the dry chick food that they will eat up. 
This, with plenty of pure water at all times, with good sanitary condi- 
tions and tbe usual amount of green or vegetable food, should produce satis- 
factory results. Small colony brooder houses are a great help at all sea- 
sons of the year, and are almost a necessity. Eemove the chicks fi-ora the 
brooders just as soon as it is possible, placing them in the houses that have 
been cleaned and made ready for them; they will do better here than they 
will in the brooders after the time that artificial heat is no longer needed. 
At this time commence to cull out the imdesirable cockerels and place 
them in a pen where they may be forced and got into condition for market 
as soon as possible. And the other cockerels should be placed by them- 
selves and given as much range as possible that they may make healthy 
growth. It is not best to keep the large and small breeds together, as the 
small and more active birds rob the larger ones. 



NATUEAL BROODING. 

It is wonderful how well the mother hen will look after her brood when 
the weather gets warm and she is given a reasonable chance to do so. Keep 
the hen and brood free from lice and with a good roosting coop to protect 
her at night, she may be allowed to roam at will with the chances in her 
favor that she will succeed in raising a goodly number of fine healthy 
chickens. 

Nature's way is hard to beat when conditions are right. Many a brood 
of chicks has been ruined by too much pampering and confinement. Bo 
good to your little chick, but not too good. 



PLUM TREES IN POULTRY YARD. 

Plant plum trees in the yards where hens are confined. The hens soon 
learn to pick up the curculio which drop from the trees, but tiiey can 



Cheap Kggs for Tlatching. 34'7 

bo easily led to do f::o more freely by scattering grain under tlie trees and 
shaking them while the hens are present. Poultry enjoy eating curculio 
or bugs, beetles, etc., more than they enjoy eating grain or most other 
forms of food. They will begin to pick up the curculio when it drops at 
their feet. It is well to enlarge the poultry yard opening off from the 
poultry house, so that it occupies considerable ground, perhaps one-fourth or 
one-half an acre. The hens keep this ground cultivated and free from 
every weed or spear of grass, keep the ground fertilized, and this induces 
vigorous growth of trees without much, if any, cultivation by the owner. 
All kinds of fruit trees do well in hen yards, and grow more vigorously 
there than in other localities. 

One gives his experience as follows : In planting a little scrub Burbank 
plum tree that was thrown away by a nurseryman in one corner of his hen- 
nery. At the same time he planted large and beautiful plum trees in other 
parts of his grounds; but the little scrub tree in the hennery had made 
five times the growth that the larger trees did in very fertile ground. He 
placed a little pack of stones about the base of the plum tree to prevent 
the hens from uncovering the roots by wallowing in the soil, as they often 
will. The pile of stones undoubtedly kept the ground moist and aided the 
growth of the tree, but the fertility of the hennery yard and the continu- 
ous scratching of the hens keep the soil cultivated and the gress and weeds 
had no opportunity to grow. The little tree had nothing to do but to grow. 
— Garden and Farm. 



CHEAP EGGS FOR HATCHING. 

During the summer months some of our leading and most prominent 
breeders of thoroughbred poultry will sell you eggs for hatching from their 
finest stock at reduced prices. This is true for the reason that they have 
hatched all they care to for their own use and the rush of the shipping 
season is over, consequently with a good supply of eggs coming in each day 
they can afford (they think) to reduce the price to induce buying. Farmers, 
amateurs and those who do not feel like pa^dng $2.00, $3.00 or $5.00 for 
a setting of the finest eggs early in the season, may be able with care and 
close attention to hatch and raise some fine stock during the hot summer 
months. It is worth the trial anyway. 

Along the same line of procedure we may note that poultrymen frequently 
sell some of their breeding hens at greatly reduced prices rather than keep 
them over when they have so many youngsters on the way. You can 



348 Meat for Fowls. 

make a good investment in that way and be able to raise a goodly number 
of chickens through the summer and fall, enough to pay for your pur- 
chase many times over. 



A good food for growing chicks or laying hens is fish waste, if used 
fresh, or young aQd inferior refuse fish which can be had at canning and 
packing plants, usually free of cost. This food is rich in protein, and is a 
remarkable egg and flesh producer. A proper way of preparing this waste 
or refuse is to steam or bake it quite thoroughly, thus eliminating any of- 
fensive odor, and mix it with the daily mash of corn or oatmeal or mid- 
dlings. It will take the place of a meat diet, but should not be fed too 
freely or too often, as it may have a tendency to lessen the amount of 
exercise the fowls should take. When the fish are properly cooked the 
flavor will not bo perceptible in the eggs. — Florida Poultry and Agricul- 
tural Journal. 



MEAT FOE FOWLS. 

Quick-growing birds require considerable bone and muscle-forming ma- 
terial. Our little chicks have again given us an impressive lesson in this 
respect. We had a flock of incubator-hatched Hamburgs in the green- 
house. They had their frequent rations of shredded wheat mixed with a 
fair proportion of beef meal, grit, granulated bone, etc., and just moist- 
ened with milk, or, in the absence of milk, with boiling water. We thought 
we gave all the protein that was required or safe. But when the chicks 
got to be a few weeks old and they were admitted td another part of the 
greenhouse, where we had a quantity of rich soil on the floor, they were 
so anxious for the earth worms that were exposed when soil was shoveled 
up for use in flats or pots, or turned over, or such worms as they could 
find by scratching in this soil, that we had to be very careful with the shovel 
so as not to hurt any of them in their eager search for the worms around 
the shovel. Then let one of the chicks get hold of a big worm, and it 
would run away with it from the others, possibly half a dozen or a dozen 
other chicks running after it to get a peck at the worm. One of the boyi 
finally dug up a lot of worms in a rich garden spot and gave them to the 
chicks, repeating this for some days, until the chicks had become filled up 
with worms. Great quantities of earth worms, and some of them quite 
large, had been swallowed by the little thngs, and at least their eagerness 
for this diet began to abate. They still eat worms, but not with the same 



Cull Out Hens. 349 

avidity as at first. A reader in South Carolina asks us how much green 
bone should be given to one fowl for best results. He says he has a Mann 
bone cutter, and can get plenty of bones from market. Sometimes his 
hens do not seem to do well after feeding bones, and their droppings are 
soft and white, and some hens lay soft-shelled eggs at night. They had 
plenty of run on rye and clover. We arc not much afraid of giving too 
much green cut bone and meat to our fowls or chicks. To feed an ounce 
a day to a grown hen is not an excessive quantity, provided, however, that 
the meat and bones are perfectly sweet. Half decayed fleshy matter should 
not be fed. We would not Avant to eat eggs from hens thus fed, and thp 
practice is dangerous. Fowls are often killed by the poison in decaying 
meat. Feeding excessive quantities of meat may, of course, bring on diar- 
rhoea or other troubles of this kind. Soft-shelled eggs may be due to the 
lack of shell-forming material, or to an inflammation or unhealthy condi- 
tion of the walls of the oviduct which secrete the calcareous matter. 



CULL THEM OUT. 

The summer is the season of the year to get rid of your old hens. By this 1 
do not mean all your hens, but the old ones — those tliat are three years old or 
over. As a rule they will not pay after they have attained that age, and 
this is the best time in the year to market them. They are in prime con- 
dition now, and the moulting season will soon be upon them, when they 
will stop laying and be an expense to you without any returns. 

Many of these 3-year-old hens will go for months during moult witbout 
producing an egg. This is a losing proposition. Those who use the trap 
nests often find an old hen that is almost worth her weiglit in gold in the 
laying business. Such should be kept as long as profitable, which may 
be five years. However, when you have no means of telling, better do 
the culling. 

To offset this culling process, look well to the pullets you are raising and 
do not let one of them go to the block. You will need them to fill the va- 
cancies made, ilany of our farmer friends are thoughtless about this very 
matter and let many a nice pullet go to market for the sake of the thirty 
cents io sight, rather than keep her for the dollars that she would pro- 
duce, but which have not appeared upon their horizon. A bird in the hand 
is not always better than the two in the bush, if we are reasonably sure 
of what we can make out of the two in the bush. "Prove all things. Hold 
fast to that which is good," may well be applied anywhere along the line. 

2.3 



EATION FOR A LAYING HEN. 

A question which has been frequently asked in the institutes I have at- 
tended is. What is a good ration for a laying hen? 

That question answers itself, if you give it a thought. We will ask 
ourselves this question: What is an egg composed of? Seventy-four per 
cent of the egg is water. Now, how necessary is it that a hen should have 
water every hour of the day — nice, clean water. Because it is impossible 
for a hen to lay many eggs without water. 

When a housewife opens an egg in a saucer and examines it, and the 
egg is not so nice as she would like to see it, the white of the egg is watery 
and the yolk is pale, she thinks that the hen is sidv, but that is not so. 

When the white of an egg is watery, it shows that we are not feeding 
a good, well-balanced ration. The lack of protein in feeding causes it. 
Fourteen and a lialf per cent of the egg is protein. That is the wliite of 
the egg. 

We must find a ration rich in proteim. That we can do by feeding 
plenty of clover and wheat bran and wheat middlings. What is the result? 
The white of the egg is thick and attractive. 

Ten and a half per cent of the egg is fat ; that is the yellow. If the! yellow 
is pale we can color it by feeding. 

If you feed too much buckwheat the yellow of the egg will be pale. We 
feed yellow corn and wheat, two glutens, and in that way give a beautfiul 
hue to the yellow. We also feed quite a good deal of corn, to produce fat. 

How often do you pick up an egg that won't stand shipping ? Sometimes 
you find an egg with notliing but tissue — no shell at all. What is the matter 
with that hen ? , / 

The shell is composed of lime and it is a great drain upon the hen's sys- 
tem, to produce the shell. They must have lime enough to cover the egg 
with a shell. 

Clover is rich in protein and is rich in lime, but, in addition to this, we 
slack a little lime and put it into the shell box, and the hens will go there 
if they require it; and you will be surprised, if you try it, at the difference 
in the results. 

What is the result of this kind of food ? We will break an egg in a saucei' 
and see. Tlie white of the egg is thick and heavy; it is attractive, nutritious; 
the yellow of the egg is the golden hue that was desired and the shell is firm 
and strong and will stand shipment. There is the perfect egg, just brought 
about by thinking the matter over carefully, and feeding intelligently. — 
From address bv ITourv Yan Dreser. 



PLANT MULBERRIES FOR CHICKENS. 

A shade tree is often wanted in a chicken run. In fact, shade of this 
kind should he there as a i^rotection in tlie heat of the suoimer days, says 
Practical Farmer. A gentleman who recognizes this, spoke to me recently 
of his wish to plant a tree there and mentioned the mulberry as his choice, 
because of the fruit it would afford the fowls. His choice was one of the 
ever-bearing sorts. I advised him to take one of tlic common Italian tyne, 
either the ordinary white or black fruited one or the Russian or Japanese, 
all of which belong to the same class. These all bear enormous crops of 
fruit, I think much heavier crops than the ever-bearing sorts, and some 
of them continue bearing almost as long a time as those known as ever- 
bearing. The ever-bearing ones are of the native type. Our woods contain 
the wild one, Morus Rubra. The fruit is large, and the foliage also is 
large and rough to the touch. Downing's Ever-Bearing is of the same 
nature; so is Hicks' Ever-Bearing. These have large, reddish black fruit, 
but it is not produced as abundantly as on the common small fruited ones. 
If planting for table use I would set one of the ever-bearing sorts; if for 
tlie use of the fowls, the Russian, Japanese or Italian. 



FRUIT TREES AND POULTRY. 

One of the greatest mistakes that the beginner in poultry keeping can 
make is to prepare a range for his birds barren of all shade. Fowls delight, 
and it is in fact their nature, to have access to woodland or imdcrbrush, 
whore they dig around the roots and devour the countless worms thus found, 
at the same time escaping the direct rays of the sun during the intense 
heat of the summer, says Fred 0. Sibley in the Epitomist. It would hardly 
pay to provide such shelter unless it were likely to yield some degree of 
profit in addition to benefiting the hens; certainly not on valuable lands. 
Hence the advisability of selecting proper varieties of fruit trees and plant- 
ing them in the poultry runs. Fowls and the right kind of fruit trees do 
well together; one being capable of netting nearly as much money as the 
other, and every acre of land not occupied by fruit trees is to a cei'tain ex- 
tent wasted or failing to produce all that it should. Provided the soil 
and location are suitable, pear, plum, cherry and apple trees may alike be 
planted in a poultry run. The point is to get good varieties of commercial 
fruit from reliable nurseries, and then set them far enough apart so that 
the trees will have room to grow and expand. If any dwarf varieties are 
selected, they, of course, should be placed much closer together. The proper 



352 Geese for Market. 

distance apart for plum Irees is twelve feet; for cherry and apple trees, 
twenty feet. When first planted, the runs sliould be sown in blue grase 
and clover, as these will add greatly to the fertility of the soil, and until the 
trees liave become established they should be surrounded by a fence of 
chicken wire. After that the fowls will do no harm to their roots — not even 
if the soil around and between the trees is stirred up and cultivated, as it 
should be, so that they can scratch and wallow in it. Indeed, jjoultry will 
in this wav keep down insect pests, such as borers, grubs, caterpilLars, worms 
and tlie like, by eating them as fast as they appear; moreover, when the 
fruits have grown sufficiently so that the rotten and wormy ones begin to 
fall off, and the worms that are in ihem grow and multiply on the ground, 
they will take care of these, and the fruit, as well as the worms, be good 
for them. The trees, on the other hand, will afford the poultry excellent 
shade during the heat of summer, and, all in all, the two will thrive to- 
gether in a marvelous manner. Keep the trees properly pruned, remove 
any worms that may in the beginning secure lodgment among their foliage, 
turn up the soil about tlieir base occasionally, and enrich it with a little 
manure every year, and poultry may be relied upon to give them about 
all the further attention that they will need. — Farm, Field and Fireside. 



FROFIT m BANTAMS. 

While bantams are too small for table fowls, they will more than pay fo-* 
their keep in the number of eggs they lay. They are excellent chickens for 
those who do not have room for a large poultry yard. Unlike other hens, 
bantams are not injured by confinement, and a flock of a dozen can be 
kept. in a yard ten feet square. They are very small feeders and twelve 
hens will keep in good condition simply by eating scraps from the table. 
They will lay on an average 100 eggs a year and tlie eggs are almost as 
large as those laid by leghorns. The most profitable and handsome bantams 
are the black-breasted sanies. A small dry goods box will serve for their 
house. 



GEESE FOE MARKET. 

Geose pay because they require but little attention, are good foragers, are 
subject to few ailments, and bring good prices if the pure breeds are used, 
as the pure breeds will reach heavy weights. The old geese make better 



Poultry Points. 353 

layers and mothers than the young ones, and can be kept for breeding for 
years. As old geese are not readily salable in market, the young ones only 
should be sold. 

Geese will eat all kinds of young grass or weeds, and they ai'c very par- 
tial to purslaine, pig-weed, etc. They also find a large portion of their food 
on ponds, and should not be kept unless near a pond. They need no food 
in summer, but should be fed twice a day in winter. TiiC Toulouse and 
Embden are the largest breeds, the latter being entirely white in color. 
Geese require a dry place at night. In winter they will thrive well on 
cooked turnips thickened with bran. The feathers are an item which 
should not be overlooked. 

It is claimed by some that the goose, for the table, is suj erior to the 
turkey, its flesh being juicy, while that of the turkey is dry. A young goose 
is really a luxury when properly |)repared for the table. 



There is no idle season in poultry raising. Every day brings its duties, 
and it is through close atention to these that the business is made profitable. 



IX DRESSING rOULTRY. 

When dressing poultry for market do not feed for at least twenty-four 
hours before killing, unless the birds are to be drawn, as the food in the 
crop will ferment and cause an unpleasant odor. 

The best litter in the ])0ultry house is the refuse from the hay loft. Hay 
seeds are regarded as invigorating, but the benefit derived from them is 
due to the work induced hunting for the seeds. A flock of hens will scratch 
and work all day in litter from the hay loft, as the seeds are a complete 
change to them. Being small and covered with the leaves and dust, the 
hens must work to get them. The leaves from clover hay will also be rel- 
ished and are among the best food that can be supplied in winter. 



POULTRY POIXTS. 

A good remedy for roup that I have used with success for a number of 
years is as follows: Put fifteen to eighteen drops of carbolic acid in pail 
of drinking water. This for every day prevention. For swabbing throat 
use two or three drops of acid in teacupful of water. Swab with feather. 
— A. R. Henrv. 



354: Foiilfrij Points. 

Each fowl showing evidence of cold or congestion is shut up in a smalt 
coop and given two grains of calomel at night, followed by a one-grain 
quinine pill night and morning for two or three days. If there is any dis^- 
charge from nostrils, a few drops of camphorated oil are injected into each 
nostril. If any improvement is manifest in two or three days they are re- 
moved to ^ small room and a solution of copperas added to the drinking- 
water. They are kept here for a week or two, or until they show a com- 
plete recovery. If, on the other hand, after two or three days' observatioa 
and treatment no improvement is manifested, the bird is killed and buried. 
— American Agriculturist. 

Scaly leg is a filth disease, if it can be called a disease, it being caused 
by a tiny "mite'" whicli burrows under the scales of the legs and toes; it 
lives and breeds there. The remedy is very simple and easy. It is only 
necessary to grease the legs with any kind of grease. An ointment of a 
third kerosene oil and two thirds lard is easily applied, and if well rubbed 
on (and in) half a dozen times, a couple of days apart, should kill the mite^ 
and the scales will come off. Don't pull off the scales that liave become 
large; tliat will hurt the bird, sometliing lik'3 pulling off your finger nails 
would hurt you. The great remedy is so easy, and the prevention of the 
trouble by simple cleanliness is so easy there is no sort of excuse for scaiy 
leg; it is simply and purely "neglect.^' 

C. A. (Latham, a prominent poultryman of Massachusetts, Avho breeds 
ver}^ high class birds, has a method of feeding which is simplicity itself. 
Ho has in each pen self-feeding hoppers. These hoppers are traverseiy 
divided into different compartments and in each compartment is a different 
kind of feed. They are kept supplied at all times and his birds eat as 
much of each kind of feed as they like, mixing it to suit themselves. Mr. 
Latham's stock is always healthy and thrifty. He never feeds any wet or 
damp feed to his fowls, old or young. From the first, they are fed on dry 
feed and get it from the hoppers. Each hopper contains a variety of grains 
bran and middlings, and a compartment full of dry beef scraps, such as sold 
for poultry feed. This plan saves an immense amount of detail work and 
mussing with hot mashes and mixed feeds. If there is a 'laest way'' to 
feed poultry, this plan would seem to be the best. 

At a test at the ^linnesoia station regarding the digestibility of hard 
and soft boiled eggs, it was found that eggs boiled five or ten minutes at 
a temperature of SO degrees Avere completely digested in a solution of pep- 
sin, in five hours time, while eggs cooked but three minutes at 212 degrees 
required a longer period to digest. 



Signs of Health and Disease. 355 

The hens that have to hustle for all their living without any help from 
their owner are not tliose that Avill produce 200 eggs a year. 



Do not he persuaded to sell the early hatched pulletvS which should make 
the best winter-layers or that promise best as breeders. 



A dozen hens with a male when yarded and about twenty with him on 
free range are very good condition for general service. Have a good strong 
male bird not akin to the hens, if you want good "general purpose fowls.'' 
In and in-breeding is only allowable to a certain extent, and for certain 
purposes. 



SIGNS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE. 

When fowls are judiciously fed, given plenty of fresh, clean water (which 
many do not get), made to take exercise and their quarters kept clean and 
free from lice, there is comparatively no trouble with sickness, except in 
cases of contagion. 

When the combs and wattles of fowls are bright red in color it indicates 
a condition of health. 

When they are busy scratching, the hens laying and singing, and the codes 
croAving, these are signs of health. 

When you enter the hen house at night and hear no wheezing, it proves 
that there are no roupy fowls in the flock. 

When the manure is hard and a portion is white, it indicates a licalthy 
condition of the digestive organs. 

When the edge of the comb and wattles are of a purplisli red and the 
movements sluggish, there is something wrong. 

When fowls lie around, ind'fferent to their surroundings, ihox are too 
fat, and death from apoplexy, indigestion or liver complaint will residt 
unless the trouble is corrected. Feed nothing but grain and not too much 
of it, and make them scratch for it, every morsel. 

When fowls are restless and constantly picking in their feathers, tkev 
are infested with vermin. 

Wlien young youltry, especially ducklings, appear to have a sore throat 
and swallowing is difficult, it is a symptom of the large gray lice on the 
neck. 



CHICKEN MITES. 

Chicken mites are the most common pests in nests and houses. Cleanli- 
ness is the best means of preventing their multiplication. They develop 
best in filthy nests and in cracks and under boards in chicken houses. 
Clean the house (move if portable) and then spray the house with kero- 
sene oil emulsion. If possible apply tar in the cracks and under roosting 
boards and this will catch many which escape the spray. Clean and spray 
the infested houses and coops once per week and dip the infested chickens in 
weak kerosene oil emulsion, or a 2 to 4 per cent creolin solution. Never dip 
chickens in a poorly mixed kerosene solution. It will blister the skin jf 
the kerosene is not thoroughly emulsified. The copper sulphate solution, 
if applied hot will kill mites. It should not be applied on chickens. 

Kerosene emulsion is made as follows : Dissolve one-half pound of hard 
soap in one gallon hot water^ add 2 gallons of kerosene and stir or churn 
until a milky mixture (or emulsion) is formed; now add 8 to 10 gallons of 
water; stir or mix with a spray pump, or keep the emulsion of soap, water 
and kerosene and use as much of it as you desire after diluting with 8 to 10 
parts water. 

Copper sulphate solution : Dissolve 4 to 6 pounds of copper sulphate 
(blue stone) in 20 to 50 gallons of water. Spray this over dusted or cleaned 
boards, walls, nests or other places. When dry, or the next day, whirowash 
with spray brush. If applied hot this copper sulphate solution will kill 
mites. — Dr. C. A. Cary, in Southern Euralist. 



DIRECTIONS FOE PACKING EGGS. 

The following directions for packing eggs in water-glass are given: Use 
only perfectly fresh eggs. Stale eggs will not keep by any method of 
preservation. Clean out the vessel in which the eggs are to be packed (pre- 
ferably a stone jar) by scalding with boiling water. Prepare the solution, 
using water that has first been boiled and then cooled to ordinary tempera- 
ture. 

To each fifteen quarts of water add one quart of water-glass. Pack the 
eggs into tlie jar and pour the liquid over them, covering the eggs com- 
pletely. Do not wash the eggs before packing them, as this may injure their 
keeping qualities by removing a natural protective coating on the outside of 
the shells. 

Keep the eggs packed in this manner in a cool, dark place, such as a 
drVj cool cellar. 



Diseases of Poult 11/ and llemedicx. 35? 

Each clay's gathering of eggs may be packed immediately after gathering 
them in the jar and pouring over them jnst enough of the solution to cover 
them. This is better ilian to hold the eggs for several days at the risk of 
their becoming stale in order to have a sufficient number to fill the entire 
vessel at one ime. In some of the warmer sections of the State, during 
the summer months, the temperature often rises high enough to start incu- 
bation in eggs. In such localities eggs must be packed soon after they are 
laid or kept in some cool pJace until they are to be packed. 

Water-glass is a somewliat alkaline liquid, but the dilution is not injur- 
ious to the hands if they are dipped into it in packing successive gatlierings 
of eggs or in removing eggs from the solution. 

It is stated that eggs packed by this method will keep for some time (as 
long as four weeks) after they have been taken out of the preservative 
solution. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY AXD EEMEDIES. 

ROUP. 

In case fowls should get the roup a good and tried remedy is this, in 
fact it has been proved reliable by different ones in light and bad form: 
Confine the sick fowls from the rest of the flock and allow them nothing 
else to drink except the following: To one gallon of water add one-half 
pound common copperas; sulphuric acid, one gill, or one-half fluid ounce. 
Do not cork up tight. Give about one teaspoonful to a quart of water; 
can be fed in any soft food. If these directions are followed closely, 
health will be quickly restored. 

Dr. Sanborn, the Xew York poultry expert, says that fumigating poultry 
houses in which those affected with roup are confined, to prevent or cure 
that disease, is not a success. He adds : "It might be well to fumigate 
the house when empty, but you would find many dead birds if you at- 
tempted to do much when the hens were inside. There is no better and 
safer treatment for roup than kerosene oil on the surface of the drinking 
water with arsenite of antimony dissolved in the water. Every time the 
bird drinks she gets a little oil in the nostrils and throat and swallows 
her dose of antimony. Under this method of treatment I have seen some 
very sick flocks recover, with few deaths. Small doses of these remedies 
will do much to abate roup.'' 

CATARRH. 

This disease may be caused by roosting in poorly ventilated quarters 
or where the temperature changes too suddenly. Ten drops of tincture of 



o58 Diseases of Poultry and Remedies. 

enphrasis in each pint of drinking water may be advised as the most simple- 
remedy. In extreme cases, where a froth-like matter fills the eyes, the 
latter should be batJied with a pint of warm water to which has been 
added four drops of carbolic acid. If sores form, on the head they should 
be thoroughly bathed with carbolated vaseline. The poultry house should 
have perfect ventilation and be fumigated at least once each week. A 
spoonful each of arsenate of antimony and coal oil added to the drinking 
water is also a good preventive as well as remedy. 

INDIGESTION. 

When the fowl becomes weak and its comb turns white it is many- 
times due to indigestion resulting from an overworked liver. Separate 
the sick birds from the well ones and feed no meat. Give bulky feeds^ 
such as bran mash just wet enough to make the particles stick together. 
It is much better to underfeed than to overfeed when the birds are suf- 
fering from this ailment. Give the birds all the grit they desire and 
once each day give them a feed of green cut cabbage, cutting it up fine 
and seasoning with a little salt and pepper. Set a pan of pulverized 
charcoal in the pen where they can partake of it at any time. Keep the 
house clean and well ventilated. Medicines are of little value. 

SORE HEAD IN CHICKENS. 

Sore head is nothing more than a blood disease and is easily controlled 
and cured. Sulphur in soft food, a teaspoonful to each dozen hens, feed 
every other day, will cure almost any case. If the heads are very sore,, 
it may be necessary to rub the affected parts with carbonized vaseline^ 
but mild cases will not require such treatment. 

A few drops of tincture of iron in drinking water will materially aid in 
toning up the system and keep the blood in good condition. 

BOWEL TROUBLES. 

Dr. Salmon in an address says that too much green bone, meat meal 
or meat scraps fed the same day will work a great injury to the fowls. 
In pullets the combs will turn yellow, diarrhoea will follow, the bird will 
act drowsy and droopy till it finally dies. The doctor thinks that the 
l)rKlly diseased birds should be killed at once and the doubtful ones re- 
moved to quarters by themselves, where they should be fed grain and 
clover hay. Have no animal food in the mash. Fill hoppers with bran 
and grit. An hour before sunset feed a full ration of wheat and then 
sec that no more than this is given. Medicine does little srood in these 



Diseases of Poullry and Remedies. 359 

cases. If diet will not set these birds right, little else can be done with 
drugs. In addition to this the birds should liave a liberal supply of pul- 
verized charcoal, set where they may partake at any time. 

SCALY LEGS. 

Scaly legs are due only to neglect; and it is safe to say that one will 
never find a case among the poultry kept in well regulated yards. 

The scales are caused by a tiny parasite which burrows under the 
skin of the legs. It is an easy matter to remove them, and still an easier 
one to prevent their appearance. 

To remove them, rub the legs with a mixture of kerosene, lard and sul- 
phur, and repeat twice a week until the scales disappear. To prevent 
them, saturate the roosts every week with kerosene. 

EGGBOUND. 

Irritation of the oviduct, causing the membrane to become dry and 
deficient in its normal lubrication, an abnormally large egg, or a too fat 
condition of the hen may cause difficulty in expelling an egg from the 
body and produce the condition known as eggbound. If the egg remains 
in the oviduct for a considerable length of time inflammation is produced, 
which finally develops into decomposition of the tissues and results in 
death. Fowls when eggbound are restless, going frequently on the nest, 
showing a desire to lay, and, in general, giving evidence of being in dis- 
tress. Later they become dull and listless, remaining in this condition 
until death, if not relieved. The egg can usually be felt in the posterior 
] ortion of the abdomen. If the trouble is early discovered, inject a small 
quantity of oil into the vent, and gently try to work the egg out. If this 
treatment is unsuccessful, hold the lower part of the body in warm water 
for half an hour, or until the parts are relaxed; then treat as above. It 
may be necessary to break the egg, to allow the contents to escape, and 
remove the shell in pieces. After removal of the egg give soft, cooling 
feed. 

Occasionally difficulty in laying an egg causes prolapsus or oversion 
of the oviduct. When this occurs the oviduct is partially turned inside 
out and protrudes from the vent. If the egg causing the trouble has not 
been expelled, remove it, wash the exposed portion of the oviduct with 
warm water, apply carbolated vaseline or lard, and return to its normal 
position by gentle pressure. In addition it is well to give the fowd three 
to five drops of fluid extract of ergot. 



360 Diseases of Poultry and Remedies. 

LIMBERNECK. 

This disease, as its name indicates, is characterized by the limp con- 
dition of the neck, the fowl practically losing all control of the neck 
muscles, so that the head rests on the ground. This condition occurs 
in warm weather, and is caused by the fowls eating decomposed flesh in 
which a ptomaine has developed. This poison causes partial paralysis 
of the neck muscles and often results in the death of the birds. Maggots 
eaten by fowls do not cause the disease, except as they may contain the 
poison which they have obtained from the decaying flesh. 

The best and most effective treatment is, of course, never to leave any 
dead fowls or other dead animals around, but to bury or burn all carcases. 
Treatment of sick birds is not usually very successful, but a toaspoonful 
of castor oil is sometimes effective. 

CHOLERA. 

Tliis is a contagious disease caused by bacteria, and is usually brought 
in by the introduction of infected birds or by water or feed contaminated 
by the excrement of sick birds. It is also possible for fowls to be in- 
fected through wounds or even by the inhalation of germs in the form 
of dust. The symptoms include a great thirst and the voiding of feces, 
of which the part normally white is yellow. This is not a sure indica- 
tion of the disease, for the same thing may occur as the result of other 
disorders. Diarrhoea is generally a prominent symptom, the droppings 
being thin and voided frequently, and in the later stages the yellow por- 
tion may change to green; the fowl becomes depressed, the feathers be- 
com ruffled, the comb becomes pale or very dark, and the bird has a poor 
appetite. Sometimes the disease runs rapidly through a flock, destroy- 
ing the greater part of the birds in a week, or it may assume a more 
chronic form, extend slowly, and remain on the premises for several week? 
or months. Fowls affected with this disease usually die within thirty-six 
hours. Most so-called cases of cholera are simply diarrhoea. 

In most cases medical treatment for cholera has proved unsatisfactory. 
The best method of combating this disease is to carry out strict sanitary 
prec.'iutions as regards cleanliness and disinfection, and to totally d(3sti"oy 
the carcasses of dead birds. Droppings should be burned or thoroughly 
disinfected by mixing with a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Disnn- 
fect the building by spravinct thoroughly with a 5 per cent solution of 
carbolic acid, and then whitewash. 



POULTRY INFORMATION. 

NUMBER OF FEMALES TO ONE MALE, 

Of the light, active breeds, such as the Leghorns and Minorcas, one 
male will be sufficient for a pen of twelve to fifteen females under ordinary 
conditions. In the case of the medium-sized fowls, such as the Plymouth 
Rocks and Wyandottes, one male should be provided for every ten or 
twelve females. With the heaviest breeds, like the Brahmas and Cochins, 
one male should not be mated with more than ten females. Where twenty 
to thirty females are kept in one flock no better means of securing fertile 
eggs is known than to keep two male birds, allowing one of them to run 
with the hens one day and the other the next day, having a coop or extra 
pen in which to keep the one not with the hens. 

TEACHING THE CHICKS TO ROOST. 

It is often advisable to teach the chicks to roost when eight to twelve 
weeks of age. When they are allowed to remain on the floor it is dif- 
ficult to keep them clean and to keep them from crowding. If wide roosts 
— three to four inches — are used there is but little, if any, more danger 
of crooked breasts than if the chicks are allowed to remain on the floor. 
The chicks can generally be taught to roost by putting the per-ches near 
tlie floor and placing with them one or two old hens or older chicks that 
are in the habit of roosting. If this plan is inconvenient or does not prove 
effective, the chicks may be placed on the perches after dark for a few 
niglits until they have learned to go there of their own accord. 

HATCHING CHICKS. 

There are two methods of hatching and brooding chicks — the natural, 
in which the chicks are hatched and brooded by hens, and the artificial, 
in which they are hatched in incubators and brooded in houses or in 
separate outdoor brooders. For the person witli a small flock the natural 
method will be found the easier and less expensive. For the person, 
however, who has a hundred or more hens and intends raising large num- 
bers of chicks, and for all who keep only the non-sitting varieties, the 
artificial method is the more practical. There is also the added advan- 
tage with the latter method of being able to hatch chickens at any time 
of the year. 

WATER-GLASS. 

Of the many methods which have been tried for preserving eggs on 
a small scale, none has proved more successful than the use of water- 
glass (sodium silicate). This is a very cheap product that can usually 



362 Poultry Information. 

be procured at not to exceed fifty cents a gallon, and one gallon will 
make enough solution to preserve fifty dozen eggs, so that the cost of 
material would not exceed one cent a dozen. Pure water that has been 
boiled and then cooled should be used. To each fifteen to twenty quarts 
of water one quart of water-glass should be added. The solution should 
be prepared, placed in the jar or other suitable vessel, and the fresh eggs 
added from time to time rmtil the jar is filled, but be sure that there is 
two inches of the solution covering the eggs. The eggs should not be 
washed before packing, for washing injures the keeping quality, proba- 
bly by dissolving the mucilaginous coating. 

TIME OF HATCHING POULTRY EGGS. 

Chickens 21 days 

Pheasant 25 days 

Duck : 28 days 

Peafowl 28 days 

Guinea 25 days 

Goose 30 days 

Turkey 28 days 

HOW TO RAISE YOUNG CHICKS. 

In the spring is the time to get properly started in the care of young 
chicks, if you expect results later. The first six weeks of their life has more 
to do with their winning prizes than all the rest combined. If you stunt 
them, allow them to become crowded or lousy, you need not look for the blue 
ribbons in next winter's shows, in competition with breeders who avoid these 
defects. 

Our own experience has taught us that when chicks are old enough to 
eat they should be forced to a reasonable extent, or in other words, given 
all the wholesome food they can properly digest. They should be kept 
free from vermin, and allowed ample room for exercise; at the same time 
do not allow them to become chilled. 

If you are raising them by natural methods, we would suggest that the 
hen be confined, allowing the chicks their liberty to go and come as they 
please, that they will constantly be returning to the mother hen to be 
warmed up, acting very much as a human being would, coming to the fire 
to get warm and then going back into the air. But where you crowd too 
many bodies together, either artificially or under hens, and they are in- 
haling constantly the foul air from a number of bodies, you will soon 
find they will have a sleep look and loss of appetite. They will drink a 



Poultry Information. 363 

3ot of water and eat but little, then pretty soon the bowel trouble, which 
is the most serious disease to he encountered in young chicks, will have 
•done its work. 

There are many simple methods of the rearing of young chicks naturally, 
■which any one, no matter where situated, can adopt without much ex- 
pense. An ordinar}' store box, about three feet long by two feet high, 
turned over on its side, makes an ideal nest or coop, provided some strips 
are added to the top to keep out the water and one board added as a sort 
•of shed for the front, so that the beating rains cannot blow in. Add to 
this front an ordinary sellers' screen, such as you can buy at any hardware 
store, put it on a frame, the same size as the front of j'our box, and by 
fastening your chickens in at night you have a safe place from varmints 
•of any kind, and by cleaning the box often, seeing that the mother hen 
is free from vermin, you will start your chicks in the direction of the 
blue ribbons. 

Wholesome food, properly mixed, will very materially assist you in this 
•direction. There are so many good feeds advertised at the present time 
that we believe it is cheaper, all things considered, to buy the feed than 
to mix it yourself. In case you are so situated that you cannot secure 
this feed, without trouble, we would suggest a diet of fine cracked corn, 
millet seed, cracked wheat and cracked Kaffir corn. These cereals properly 
mixed make an elegant food for young chicks, and they will do well on it. 

If you have no feed that contains grit, then it will be necessary to add 
grit, pounded glass or crockery, either of which is elegant. Old broken 
lamp chimneys, flower pots or any kind of dishes that may have been 
broken around the kitchen are ideal poultry grit, and it is an easy job 
to demolish it by taking a flat stone and hammer and crushing it up. 
Some would think that ground glass would be injurious to chicks, but 
we have never found it so; in fact, the sharper the edges the better they 
seem to get along with it, as it lodges in the gizzard and is a mill of itself 
to grind the feed, then allowing it to enter into the stomach. 

^^^len hens are confined in boxes of this kind while the weather is un- 
certain it is well to make a small slide partion so that the chicks can go 
out, but still retain the hen. They will run away a few feet, but will come 
back constantly at the call of the mother, and are safe from cats or other 
varmints. They will find their way in at roosting time, as well as when 
sudden storms come up. 

Where chicks are reared artificially, no more than fifty should be given 
to any brooder, regardless of size, if you expect them to mature and de- 
velop into prize winners. The greatest economy is in having a sufficient 



36 i Poultry Information. 

number of brooders to properly raise your chicks to maturity, and it is 
not practical to change them from one location to another after they have 
become accustomed to one place of roosting. The best results we have 
ever obtained were where chicks were started and grown to roosting size 
without changing them from the brooder or the position of the run; in 
fact, the only way to make chickens grow is to keep them absolutely con- 
tented. The contented person is almost invariably fat and healthy, while 
the one who frets and is dissatisfied is just the reverse, and? the same rule 
will apply to all branches of live stock. Any animal that is well cared for 
and is contented in its home will do well and give the very best results. 

Breeders will often notice one or two females in a pen of mated birds 
that are constantly trying to get out. These birds will never give a good 
report of themselves, and the sooner they are moved to some other quar- 
ters the better, and the same rule will apply in young chicks. If they are 
satisfied with their quarters you can almost see them grow, while if 
cramped, crowded and filth}^, j^ou will meet with disappointment. 

HOW TO DRESS AND PREPARE A CHICKEN FOR THE TABLE. 

Keep in a coop and feed no bread or grain for at least twelve hours 
before dressing, that there may be nothing in the craw that would give 
to the meat an otfensive odor. If rainy or cold weather, dress it indoors. 
Have water boiling. Wring the neck until you feel it break, but do not 
pull head off. Put one quart of boiling water and a dipperful of cold 
water into a lard pail, or other deep vessel. Hold the chicken by the 
head and press it down a moment, then raise it and try the feathers; if 
loose, remove it and insert the head. Now remove and quickly rub off 
the feathers, scarf-skin and all; if scalded before it quits kicking, rub 
briskly before it gets cool; there will not remain a hair or pin feather, 
and hence need no singing. Wash, cut off wings, legs and "pully bone," 
holding the head toward the entrails, cut along the backbone through the 
ribs to the neck on each side, and get two nice pieces of "breast.'^ Cut 
the neck into two pieces. Unjoint the back and take out the oil bag. 

Wash all the bloody pieces, rub salt on well. 

To Fry — Have grease hot, pepper and dip in batter made of flour and 
water. Cover until brown, turn and brown, add a spoonful of water to 
produce a steam. Cover to keep steam in and to soften the chicken. 

To make the Gravy — After removing the chicken stir a spoonful of flour 
and a pinch of salt and pepper into the hot grease; pour into bowl; then 
put a cup of sweet milk into the frier and let come to a boil; then pour 
into the bowl and stir, and serve while hot. 



Paultry Information. 365 

INCUBATORS. 

The incubator for hatching poultry is now recognized as an important 
factor in the poultry yard. Incubators are now so perfectly automatically 
manufactured that any one may soon learn to operate the same with success. 
There is quite a difference in the make-up of an incubator. Some of the 
cheap kinds are almost useless, and before buying an incubator the pros- 
pective purchaser should be very careful in selecting a reliable one. 

INCUBATION. 

Natural incubation is performed by the mother hen; artificial incuba- 
tion is performed through artificial heat. The success of incubation depends 
entirely either upon the care by the mother hen or the operator of the 
incubator. In addition to heat, the eggs require a certain amount of 
moisture and turning; the temperature must be kept from 100 degrees 
to 103 degrees. In buying an incubator the manufacturers furnish ex- 
plicit directions for running the incubator, and which directions must be 
followed. One set of directions could not be applied to all incubators, 
even if the principle of incubation are the same. 

NOTES ON INCUBATORS. 

Before placing any eggs in the incubator, study the principles and note 
the heat and adjust the lamp, or other source of heat, to a nicety for a day. 

The incubator should not be placed where there is a draft, sunshine 
or hot stove. 

Keep all parts of the incubator and lamps scrupulously clean. 

Turn every egg the third day. 

After the eighteenth day do not disturb the effffs. 



PART IX. 



FROGS FOR PROFIT. DAIRYING, BEE-KEEP- 
ING AND MISCELLANEOUS. 



FROGS AS A SOURCE OF 
PROFIT. 

It is commonly supposed onl}' French people eat frog legs; this, however, 
is erroneous. Undoubtedly the consumption of frog legs as a food supply 
originated in France. Evidently we have had enough French people and 



W> 




FROGS 

epicures emigrate to this country to educate the American and other 
nationalities to the fine flavor and texture of frog legs, and it is not un- 
common to find frog legs on the bill of fare of every first-class restaurant 
in all of our cities. 



370 Frogs as a Source of Profit. 

At the present time frogs are known more by their noise than from 
any commercial value in the South, and the quantities of frogs in a pond 
must never be judged by the noise; four or five frogs in a duette from 
G flat to C minor, ending in a grand final chorus, will easily leave 
the impression that there are several hundred frogs in the pond. A farmer 
i«i Texas wrote a commission merchant in St. Louis, if they would buy 
frogs. The reply came : "Yes, we will buy all you have. How many 
can you ship us?" The farmer replied: "Oh, several thousand." The 
firm wrote back to ship them along. The farmer finally made a shipment 
of a dozen and a half of frogs, with the statement : "That's all I could 
get; I was fooled by their hollering." 

It is not our intention to fool anyone with any useless noise, but we 
believe the Southern States is a chosen field for frog culture, and some 
attention should be bestowed upon the industry. 

The value of frogs is now $1,000,000 a year, and constantly increasing. 
In fact, the consumption has virtually doubled in the last five years. The 
a'verage price paid to hunters in the Southern territory is $1.00 per dozen, 
and the demand far exceeds the supply. 

One frog will spawn 60,000 eggs, and the young frogs emerging from 
the eggs have many enemies, and in all probability hardly ten frogs will 
reach maturity out of the 60,000. Supposing these young frogs were 
protected, like the United States fish department protects young fish for 
a short time, until sufficiently grown in size to develop self-protection 
and turned loose in the swamps, rice ditches and canals, and in turn con- 
sume the mosquitoes, the great Southern pest. It is strange that our 
Department of Agriculture, ever alert to new development, should have 
overlooked this promising industry, and even our legislatures should make 
a light appropriation to investigate and foster the propagation of frogs 
in the South, 

HUNTING FROGS. 

Experienced frog hunters use a torch or a flash light lantern, the same 
as used by the fishermen on the coast for spearing flounders. The hunter 
either travels in a boat along the edges of the water or wades and shines 
a light into the frog's e5^es ; when close up the hunter simply grabs the 
hog and places him in a bag, and the frogs are also shipped in the bags 
by express. The best season for hunting fogs in the South is from April 1 
to June 1. During tliis period the Northern markets are open for South- 
ern frogs. There are certain houses in all of the markets which make a 
specialty of handling frogs, and of course these are always the ones who 
ean get the best prices, as they have a regular established trade for frogs. 



Wine-Making in the South. 371 

SHIPPING FROGS. 

In many Southern localities there are concentration points where local 
merchants buy the frogs from the hunters and either ship them alive or 
dressed to the principal markets. Where there is ice available, kill the 
frogs by simply chopping off the heads, removing the insides, leave the 
■mddle and legs together and pack neatly with cracked ice in strong boxes; 
state the number of dozens in each box on the box, and ship only by 
express to reliable houses. For information about firms always 'apply 
to the editor or manager of The Southern Shippers' Guide, where all 
information may always be had for the asking. 

For close-by points frogs may be shipped alive in boxes or sacks. There 
is considerable risk of many dying in transit, which is quite a loss. 

PROPAGATING FROGS. 

Anyone living close to a water supply of rivers, lakes or irrigation ditches 
or canals, may propagate frogs with certain results, by fencing off a 
part with close ware netting, snake-proof, and place in this compartment 
a dozen or two frogs. As soon as the young frogs appear and begin to 
crowd they should be removed to other enclosures, until of sufficient age 
io be turned loose in the lakes, rivers or ditches. Young frogs may be fed 
with grits, cornmeal, refuse meat and offal from the house or garden. 



WINE-MAKING IN THE SOUTH. 

It is icimarkable liow little is known by the vast majority of people 
ai)0ut the value of grape juice as a food and drink. It is practically 
correct to say that rich grape juice and wheat bread alone would furnish 
a complete food for man, but taken as a beverage alone, it stands without 
a peer, and from this standpoint deserves earnest consideration. The grape 
juice sold at soda fountains comes from New York State, there being 
no exception to this. The price paid for the juice in bottles wholesale is 
something over 40c per quart, and it is understood that the larger city 
soda fountains use as much as $100 worth of juice per month through the 
summer. It cost less than 40c per gallon to manufacture tlii? juice, and 
it can be made from any grapes, which will flourish in all parts of the 
South. Here is an industry which any fruit grower may engage in witli 
every prospect of reaping unusually large profits. The process of manu- 
facture is easy. Eipe, clean grapes are broken and pressed, and to the 
juice thus obtained one pound of sugar per gallon is added. The juice is 



372 Wine-MahitKj In I he Soiifli. 

then brought nearly, but not quite, to a boil in a porcelain kettle, then 
poured into bottles recently scalded, then corked and sealed. Prepared in this 
manner, the juice remains sweet and delicious indefinitely. It forms a 
healthful beverage and should appear on the fruit grower's table every 
day of the year, especially for the benefit of the women and children. 

The process of wine-making is Nature's own, and all that is required 
of man is to furnish clean vessels in which to hold the litpiid during the 
])rocess. Clean, fully ripe fruit is necessary. This should be crushed with 
a clean wooden masher in a clean wooden tub or barrel, covered to prevent 
dust or insects reaching it, and allowed to pass through fermentation and 
at the end of three to five days the juice will have separated from the 
husks and can be drawn off into a clean, tight keg or barrel. Fermenta- 
tion continues with greater or less vigor for several weeks, but finally the 
new wine becomes beautifully clear, usually along in November or De- 
cember, after which it may be drawn off into another carefully cleaned 
cask and set away to use. From the time the fermenting juice, or most, 
as it is called, is drawn from the pulp barrel, the cask in which it is put 
should he kept full, either with similar wine from jugs kept for that pur- 
pose, or with water in which two pounds of granulated sugar per gallon 
has been dissolved. A grape leaf should be laid over the bung hole and on 
it a small sack of clean sand, the object of this being to allow the escape 
of gases from the fermenting wine and to prevent air and dust from get- 
ting in from the outside. After racking off a bung may be used to stop 
the hole. The entire process is simple, the chief requirement being clean- 
liness, and the resulting product is a simple, clean beverage developed by 
N'ature for the benefit of man. 

Even if it were impossible to grow cultivated grapes, which is not the 
case, it would still be possible for every fruit and truck grower to make 
wine sufficient for his home use at least from the native wild vines which 
usually are found about his pasture. The mustang makes a wine which 
rivals in quality some of the vintages of Europe, but in the case of this 
grape it is necessary, on account of its exceptional acidity, to add two 
pounds of granulated sugar to each gallon of most at the time it is drawn 
from the husks. 

The "Possum" grape when fully ripe makes one of the most excellent of 
home wines, and by artificially training the wild vines the labor of gather 
ing the fruit may be so reduced as to make harvesting quite practicable. 

V. Champini, of which the Barnes variety is a good representative, 
makes a natural port wine by adding two pounds of sugar per gallon of 
most, and when fully aged would make an especially good tonic for invalids. 



Dairying and Butter-Making. 373 

The cost of manufacture of these wines outside of the labor involved in 
gathering the grapes is very small, not over 25c per gallon for the finished 
wine^ yet it will sell readily to town people for $1 to $1.50 per gallon. Hence 
by gathering three sugar barrels full of mustang grapes, adding $5 worth 
of sugar and making wine, a fifty-gallon cask may be filled, and within 
eight months of the time of gathering, the wine may be sold for at least 
$50, thus bringing more profit than could be obtained from an acre ol 
•excellent cotton. It is almost criminal to allow opportunities like this to 
pass by year after year without an attempt to take advantage of them. 
Along the fence and ravines, and about the fields and pastures many 
farmers annually allow grapes to waste, which, if converted into a mar- 
ketable product, such as wine, would net him an income greater than that 
received from his entire farming operations. Surely the subject of wine- 
making is worthy of consideration. 

Of the cultivated grapes nearly all make excellent wines, but the varieties 
which have proved most valuable fortunately grow readily in nearly every 
part of the South. The Herbemont is generally successful and makes a 
wine which brings the best prices on the market, and is especially de- 
lightful as a table drink. The Norton's Virginia flourishes in most loca- 
tions, and makes a wine which is acknowledged as a specific for stomach 
trouble. The manner of its operation on the system is not fully under- 
stood, but it is known that the digestive fluids of the stomach are nat- 
urally acid, and if strong soda biscuits, or other kitchen products strong 
in alkali, are regularly eaten the stomach fluid is neutralized and indiges- 
tion results. The wine taken at meals adds acid to the food, thus neu 
tralizing alkalis and aiding the stomach in its labors. 



DAIEYING AND BUTTER MAKING. 

The secrets of success or independence on the farm, in the orchard 
or garden consist mainly in the knowledge to utilize all o"f the farm, 
orchard or garden products to the very best advantages, and these advan- 
tages may be consistently arranged into three classes, of either selling the 
products in their raw state for cash in the markets; for home consump- 
tion, which equals cash consideration, or the products may be further de- 
veloped for market requirements, to insure increased profits for the raw 
products. 

The canning of fruit and vegetables, the poultry yard, the pigpen, the 
pastures for meat supply, and the dairy are all avenues of profits, or home 
independence on the farm. 



3T4 Dairying and Butler-Making. 

Tlie whole secret on the progressive farm is to sell the most and uHy 
the least. If the first law of Nature is self-preservation, then self-sus- 
taining is the first law of the successful agriculturist, who seeks con- 
tentment and wealth. Among all these aforesaid avenues there is none- 
important or remunerative than the dairy cow. 

The value of the dairy products, besides what the producer consumes 
exceed now over $8,000,000 annually in the United States, and the dairy 
States are by far the most prosperous in the Union, and not ihe manu- 
facturing States, as one would assume. 

There is no farm so poor or so cheap which cannot be made more at- 
tractive and more valuable by adding dairy revenues. 

There is no farm so productive and so high priced but can be used with 
larger profits and to better advantage as a dairy farm. 

It costs less to produce one pound of butter fat than one pound of 
beef or pork, and note the difference in the price. 

The high state of perfection dairying in this country has alreaay 
developed may be best illustrated by the official record of one cow in Iowa» 
which produced one thousand pounds of butter in 365 days last year. 
This same cow further broke her own record by producing this year 260 
pounds of butter in sixty days. Such results can only be expected from 
high grade cattle and the most advanced methods of modern dairying 
The grades of cattle in the United States are constantly improving; 
the long-horn, milkless cow of Texas is becoming a thing of the past; 
the lean, scrub, fence-jumping cow is disappearing as fast as the razor- 
back hog; good substantial dairy cows may now be obtained more readll} 
than a decade ago in most any part of our country. 

THE BEST DAIRY COW. 

(By the Blue Valley Creamery Co.) 

A good milch cow is naturally a dairy cow, yet there is quite a difference- 
between a good milch cow and a good dairy cow. 

In selecting a cow for profitable dairying, the most prominent consid- 
erations are quantity and quality. She may- give a large quantity of milk, 
but of such a poor quality as to make her unprofitable. She may give 
milk rich in butter fat, and yet such a small quantity that she does not 
pay. She may give a large quantity and a good qualit}^ but give it sue! ■ 
a short time as to be unprofitable. The cow with a large capacity, that 
eats heartily and converts her feed into milk, rich in butter fat, and 
works at it most of the time, realizes the greatest net profit and is the 
most desirable. In different breeds and among the different individual 



Dairying and Butter-Making. 375 

cows of the same breed, one will excel in milk, another in butter fat, and 
another in economy of production. While there may be no infallible ruh 
by which you can be governed in selecting a high class dairy cow, there 
are many points that will assist, and if carefully considered, will prevent 
disappointment, as a rule. Eemember that a cow is a machine and is in- 
tended to change the different products on which she is fed into something 
of more value. There are two distinct types of these machines. One 
manufactures or converts this feed into beef ;. the other into milk. There 
is a very decided and pronounced difference in the type of the animal 
that manufactures beef, and the animal that manufactures milk. 

AN IDEAL DAIRY TYPE. 

In the dairy type you have an animal that is angular, thin, somewhat 
loose-jointed and with prominent bones. Wedge-shaped from the front, 
head lean, moderately long, face slightly dished and a general contented 
expression of the features. The muzzle large, mouth large, nostrils wide 
and open, a clear, full, bright eye, a broad, full and high forehead, ears 
medium size, fine texture, covered with fine hair and orange yellow inside. 
Neck thin, moderately long, with little or no dewlap, and the throat clean. 
Wide spaces between the jaws, the withers lean and sharp, the shoulders 
lean and oblique, the chest deep and wide (indicating vigor and consti- 
tution), the forelegs short, straight and fine-boned, a large heart girth 
(indicating a well sprung rib), a large development of the chest with con- 
sequent increased lung power, and a large capacity for storing and digest- 
ing the immense quantities of feed necessary for producing milk. The 
back should be high and lean, the spaces between the vertebrae should be 
far apart, wide and open, the loins broad and strong, held up well to the 
level of the back, the abdomen very large and deep, showing great capacity 
in the way of large room for digestive organs. 

After all other good points are considered, the efficiency of the animal 
will be most determined by the qualities observed in the hind quarters. 
The hips should be wide apart and level with the back, the rump long, 
high and wide, the pin bones or thurls should be high and wide apart, the 
thighs should be thin, incurving but well muscled, and above everything 
a well developed udder and milking veins of the producing cow. 

The udder should be large, extend well forward, full but not fleshy, 
and the quarters even. The attachment to the body should be as large 
as possible, not only extending well forward but well up behind also. The 
udder should milk out thoroughly, so that when empty it is much smaller 
and flexible. The milk veins, which may be observed in front of the udder, 



376 Dairying and Butter-MaTcing. 

should be large, clastic, as crooked as possible, and branching. The main 
milk vein enters the chest through an opening known as the milk well, 
and the milk well should be large. The milk well seldom changes in 
size. The milk vein is very much larger when the animal is in full milk 
than when she is dry. Therefore, the milk well may be regarded as a 
surer index in a dairy cow than the milk veins themselves. 

CARE OF THE DAIRY COW. 

Next in importance to the selection of the cow for the dairy, is her care. 
She may be ideal and yet fail to give results because of improper handling. 
The best draft horse may become useless as such, because of a balky driver. 
The fleetest race horse may lose his speed through improper handling 
and poor driving, so the record-breaking milk cow may go all to pieces 
and fail completely because of mismanagement on the part of her keeper. 

It is very necessary that her manager should thoroughly understand 
her disposition, know her peculiarities and be able to anticipate her wants. 
He should fully appreciate her and through constant exhibition of sym- 
pathy preserve the closest relationship between them. He must be thor- 
oughly interested in his business and in love with the cow, whose manager 
and keeper he is. It must be understood that of all the brute creation 
she is the most sensitive. She i= a specialist. She belongs to a family 
that for hundreds of years has been bred for special work. She is refined. 
Her environments and her surroundings have been of the most fascinat- 
ing and satisfactory character. She has had a good home. Her family have 
been used to good society and in return for all these most excellent con- 
ditions she has exerted herself to the utmost in her vocation. She has 
had nothing to worry her. She has been able to give her time and atten- 
tion to converting the different kinds of feed into milk and because it 
has been a pleasure she has attained the most wonderful results and made 
herself most valuble. To continue these environments means a continua- 
tion of success ; to change them means failure. 

It must be remembered that the digesting of food, the making of blood 
and the elaborating of milk is labor the same as the labor of a draft horse, 
and her care should be in accordance with this fact. It is customary to 
give the draft horse an occasional rest. After a short season of racing 
the race horse is taken off of the track to recuperate and get ready for 
effectual work the next year. The man who works in the office, and the 
store, and the shop is accustomed to take an annual vacation. It should 
be borne in mind there is no animal or no person needs a rest more than 
tlie dairy cow, and for a reasonable vacation each year she will show lier 



Dairying and BuUer-Malcing . S^T 

appreciation by doing better work afterward. The coav's work, to her, 
is like brain work to a man, and she should be cared for accordingly. 
It has been demonstrated that wonderful results can be attained by 
taking good care of a milk cow. It should ever be remembered that this 
cow is a mother and is giving milk because of her young. She demands 
a good comfortable place to stay. Give her a stall that is hers and let 
her know it by having her occupy it. "Wlien she is about to come in she 
should be put in a box stall or somewhere where she can be turned loose 
and be comfortable as well as isolated, and at this time she should have 
special attention. When the calf comes and has sucked and stood on its 
feet and been licked off, it should be removed, and if possible this should 
be done while the cow is absent, so as to cause as little confusion as possi- 
ble. After the calf has been taken away, the cow should be petted, and 
she will appreciate it, because she needs a friend to comfort her on account 
of her loss. She needs to feel all the time that in her keeper she has a true 
friend, and in return she will show her appreciation by gliving as large 
a quantity of milk as her capacity will permit. 

FEEDING THE DATRY COW. 

Of all the animals on the farm for which the question of feeding must 
be decided, there is possibly none quite so important and that requires as 
much careful thought and intelligent directing as the dairy cow, because 
the kind, the amount and the quality of the feed are all essential to 
satisfactory results. 

She is not only a machine that we use for converting different feed 
stuffs into an article of food that is indispensable and that we would 
produce in limited quantities at any cost, but she furnishes a market for 
the cereals and the grasses that are grown on our farms. She is liberal 
in the matter of price, so far as she is able to control it, and it is im- 
portant that we should realize the valuable assistance we can render by 
intelligent feeding. She buys this feed for a two-fold purpose. Primarily 
she uses it to sustain life and furnish fuel. Next to this she uses it to 
make money to buy more feed with. For the first purpose she must have 
it at any cost, but aside from this she will only be able to get more for 
speculating purposes in proportion to her ability to compete with other 
markets. 

She is a desirable market, because she is convenient and avoids long 
,hauls, and for this reason she is entitled to our assistance in boosting the 
price. The first feed that a dairy cow gets she uses for herself. After 
that she begins converting the surplus into milk. This being the case, 



378 Dairying and Butter-MaTcing. 

the profit is in the surplus. For instance, suppose you feed twenty pounds 
of something and get fifteen cents' worth of milk, that would be three- 
quarters of a cent a pound for the feed, and then double the amount 
and feed forty pounds and get one dollar's worth, that would be two 
and one-half cents per pound for all the feed, or four and one-fourth cents 
per pound for the last twenty pounds, against three-fourths of a cent for 
the first twenty pounds. 

The kind and amount of feed that should be given to a cow depends 
largely on what she is doing, and under no circumstances should a herd 
of milk cows be fed as a herd. Each one should be fed according to its 
particular wants and necessities. The cow that gives five gallons of 4 
per cent milk a day needs more digestible food than a cow producing two 
gallons of 3 per cent milk. A cow that is giving four gallons of 3% per 
cent milk needs more than when she is giving two gallons of 3^4 V^^ ^^^^ 
milk. The size of the cow as well as the amount of milk she is pro- 
ducing will have something to do with the amount of feed necessary. 

Her feed must not only be sufficient in quantity, but it must be palata- 
ble, so as to be relished, and it must contain the right kind of nutrients 
and in proper proportion. As you are feeding the dairy cow for milk, 
her feed must be composed of the same nutrients that are contained in 
milk. These are divided into five classes: Water, ash, protein, carbohy- 
drates and fats. 

Water is very essential, but it is easily supplied at small cost. Ash or 
mineral matter is of minor importance, because all food stuffs have it 
in sufficient quantities. Protein is important. This makes muscle and 
forms casein milk. This is generally deficient in cow feed and it is abso- 
lutely indispensable, because there is no other substance that can perform 
the same function. Carbohydrates form a large part of the food consumed 
by animals. It is the part that furnishes heat to keep up the body tem- 
perature and the energy and muscular activity. It furnishes the con- 
stituents for making milk sugar and fat in milk. 

Fat in food performs the same functions as carbohydrates. The prin- 
cipal difference is that fat is a more condensed form. Wherever one is 
in excess of the other, it will take its place. Wliere protein is in excess, 
it may take the place of the carbohydrate, but the reverse is not true, and 
under no circumstances can milk be produced without protein. When the 
feed given a cow contains all these elements or constituents in the proper 
proportion, it is called a balanced ration. 

Oat straw has the necessary nutriment for making milk, but in order 
for a cow to get a sufficient amount to make five or six gallons of milk, 



DaArying and Butter-Making. 



379 



she would have to eat 250 or 300 pounds a day. As this is a physical im- 
possibility, it is necessary to mix a large amount of something else with 
a small amount of oat straw in order to get a sufficient quantity of the 
material necessary to make this milk and still stay within her capacity. 
Roughage, that is raised on the farm, such as hay and fodder, should 
be cut at the proper stage before it becomes too ripe, and it is important 
that it be put up in the best possible condition. 

Leguminous plants, such as clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, beans, etc., are rich 
in protein, and should be raised in sufficient quantity to supply this ele- 
ment that is so necessary. 




There is nothing equal to fresh pasture as a balanced ration, but we 
cannot have it the entire year. Wlien the summer advances and the heat 
increases, the pastures dry up and the necessity for some succulent feed 
to keep up the flow of milk is apparent. This can probably be best sup- 
plied by ensilage and root crops. It is highly necessary to keep up this 
flow, not alone because of the value of the milk at the time, but to prevent 
a permanent shrinkage, as it is practically impossible to restore the shrink- 
age after it has occurred. For keeping up the winter supply of milk, there 
is nothing superior to ensilage. 



TO START A DAIRY. 

There are certain requirements in profitable dairying, either in the com- 
mercial or home dairy on the farm, which must not be overlooked in estab- 
lishing the plant. 

As extreme cleanliness is necessary to produce either pure milk or pure 
butter and to maintain health among the herd, the dairy buildings should 
only be placed where there is absolute good surface and subdrainage and 
where there is always an abundance of water supply, either by a running 
steam, artesian wells or surface v.ells wdth engine or wind mill power. 

Cement floors are highly commendable in the buildings, with sloping 
surfaces, to facilitate the flushing of the floor with pure water at least once 
a day;, all of these conveniences tend to success and lighten the labor of 
the dairy farm. The next step would be to keep only good cows, feed 
them well and produce a high grade of cream and butter. 

MILKING. 

The dairy cow should be milked at the same time every day, both morn- 
ing and evening. A failure to do this will result disastrously. She should 
always be milked by the same person. A change in milkers often has a 
tendency to diminish the quantity of milk given. The custom that pre- 
vails of milking the cow during the summer months before daylight in the 
morning and after dark at night, and during the winter months long after 
daylight in the morning and before dark in the evening, is a bad one, and 
will have a tendency to cause a shrinkage. Everything possible should be 
done to add to the comfort of the cow at the time, and to make the opera- 
tion of milking as pleasant as possible. Care should be taken to keep the 
teats free from chap and sores of any kind. 

The care of milk begins with the care of the cow. She must be healthy 
and well fed and well cared for, or she will show the effects in her milk. 
If she is fed too much or not enough, her digestion gets out of order and 
the milk will often be tainted. Milk will be tainted by certain feeds if 
not properly fed. Feeds that have a strong flavor should be fed just after 
milking, instead of before. 

Milk should be kept perfectly clean, and in order to do this the cow 
and her stable must be kept perfectly clean. 

The cow's udder should be wiped off carefully before milking, to pre- 
vent any dirt falling into the milk. Immediately after milking, the milk 
should be separated by a centrifugal separator and the cream cooled as 
quickly as possible and the skim milk fed to calves and pigs while it is 



To Start a Dairy. 381 

warm. The cream should be kept in a cool, clean place, where it cannot 
absorb odors of any kind, and it should be kept in a vessel that is scrupu- 
lously clean — one that has been thoroughly washed and aired. In the care 
of milk it should always be remembered that it is human food, and that 
it is the most sensitive to surroundings of any other food. The grade of 
butter made from the cream will depend entirely on the care that is given 
the milk. The milk should be removed from the stable as soon as pos- 
sible, as it absorbs stable odors very quickly. Milk should be strained 
through two or three thicknesses of cheese cloth and the cloth should be 
rinsed in cold water, washed in warm water and scalded and dried in the 
sun. 

The best place to cool milk is to put it in water. Don't fasten up tight 
— leave it so the animal heat and the gas can escape, by covering the can 
with cloth and stirring it occasionally until it is cool. Never mix warm 
milk or cream with cool. 

Wash the separator thoroughly after each using, and thoroughly air 
every part of it. The least little particle of milk left sticking to sepa- 
rator parts is almost certain to taint the milk. 

The importance of taking good care of milk and cream so as to get it 
to the market in good shape, grows more apparent every day. ISTever allow 
one milking to stand over until the next one before separating, becaus* 
yon only have a small amount and want to save trouble. This will not onlj 
make poor cream, but diminishes the feeding value of the skim milk. 

The best results are attained in separating milk by making cream about 
;30 to 35 per cent. 

BUTTER-MAKING. 

The cream from each milking should be kept in a separate can; before 
churning put all the cream that accumulates and add 25 per cent water. 
Until churning time, keep tlie cream at a temperature of 60 degrees Far. 
Tn the summer the best temperature for churning is about 58 degrees 
Far. ; in the winter it is better to increase the temperature to 65 degrees 
Far. Churn until the butter comes in particles as large as ])epper seeds, 
then draw otf the buttermilk and add Avater at 60 degrees Far. Pure salt 
of fine grain should then be added, about three-fourths ounce to one pound 
of butter. 

While the butter is being worked it should be kept quite cool. Work 
the butter the second time after it has stood one hour, to make sure all 
the salt has been dissolved. The butter may then be converted into rolls 
or prints of one pound each, neat and attractive. 

25 



382 



Bee-Keeping. 



PACKING BUTTER. 

To keep butter for a few days until ready for market, immerse the rolls 
or prints in brine. Pack only one kind of the same flavor, color and body 
in one package; mixed lots are generally depreciated in price. Use only 
packages as boxes or tubs that are clean and neat to pack the butter- in. 
The top of the butter should be covered with a clean white cloth. One inch 
of salt spread over the top of the cloth is very advisable. 



BEE-KEEPING. 

Aside from the pleasure derived from bee-keeping, the luxury of eating 
one's own honey fresh from the comb and the remunerative profits of the 
apiary, bees are useful insects in polenization or fertilization of many 
plants on the farm, orchard and garden. The pollen in the bloom of 




BEES 



many fruits and vegetables is so deeply hidden in the cups that ordinary 
natural fertilization cannot take place and in many species of plant life 
through the lack of pollenization barren trees and foliage of fruit is the 
consequence. 

There is no agent or insect which performs this function of pollenization 
more industriously and complete than the ever busy little bee. It has been 



Bee-Keeping. S83 

demonstrated, beyond the shadow of a doubt, that when a hive of bees was 
placed in the greenhouse where early vegetables were being forced for early 
market, the crop was increased over 50 per cent Ijy the presence of the 
bees, and there is not the slightest doubt but what the bees are most useful 
agents to all plant life for polinization. 

Any place where farming, fruit raising or gardening can be successfully 
followed is adapted to the profitable keeping of bees. 

PROFITS FROM THE APIARY. 

A colony of bees, under normal conditions, will furnish from 25 pounds 
to 40 pounds per annum, or from $3.50 to $4.00, of marketable honey 
per colony. One peculiarity of bees, which deserves mentioning, is the 
fact that some persons may go near bee hives without the least hesitation 
about being attacked, while others are immediately considered enemies and 
suffer quickly in consequence from the bees. For instance, our better half 
may go to any hive without amy protestation and cut out enougb honey 
for the morning meal, when we would have to make tracks in other direc- 
tions. Some explain this, that bees have a natural inclination for some 
persons and the reverse for others. In handling bees, one should go slow, 
as any quick motion will excite mistrust. Even if a bee lights on the 
skin, a quick slap would be immediately followed by a general attack of the 
whole swarm. 

To avoid stings in handling bees it is always best to use the bee smoker 
and also the bee veil. 

WHAT RACE OF BEES TO CHOOSE. 

' Since the gentler types are themselves excellent honey gatherers, 
and the particular advantages to be derived froni some of the more 
energetic races which do not happen to be so mild in temperament are not 
likely to be secured by the beginner who is unfamiliar with the most ap- 
proved methods of manipulation of such bees, it is strongly recommended 
that only the gentle ones be at first adopted — either Caucasians;, Camiolans, 
or Italians. Should full colonies of these not be obtainable near home, 
colonies of ordinary bees may be changed by replacing their queens with 
queens of the desired race, the latter having been procured in small boxo.^ 
by mail. If possible the introduction had better be made by an expert, 
although in general, by following the instructions which accompany the 
new queen, success will also be attained by the beginner. 



384 Bee-Keeping. 

A brief summary of the leading traits of the various races now in this 
country will be in use in guiding the purchaser, as well as instructive to 
him for reference. 

Caucasians are natives of that portion of Russia lying between the Black 
and Caspian seas, are exceedingly gentle, good workers, good defenders of 
their hives, prolific, build many queen cells; and swarm often if confined 
to small hives. The workers are dark leaden gray in their general color, 
and present quite a ringed appearance because of the alternation of this 
dark color with the lighter fujzz which edges the segments of the abdomen. 
They also show frequently one to two yellow or leather-colored bands, are 
somewhat smaller bodied than Italians or Carniolans, have good wing 
expanse, and hence are nimble flyers. The drones are rather small and quite 
dark in color; queens not large; and vary in color from a coppery-yellow 
to a dark bronze. 

Carniolans are much larger bodied and > somewhat lighter gray in color 
than the Caucasians, but show likewise in many instances one or two rusty 
or dark-red bands. Their great hardiness and excellent wing power enable 
them to fly freely in much cooler weather than some other races stand, 
and to regain their hive entrances under adverse conditions. They are 
prolific, active and good honey gatherers, producing combs of snowy white- 
ness. As in the case of the Caucasians, their prolificness causes them to 
fill small hives to overflowing with bees, and this naturally results in 
numerous swarms. It is tliorefore advisable to use hives containing ten 
to twelve frames in the brood chamber. The nature of the Carniolans is 
essentially a quiet one, so that upon the approach of cold weather they 
settle down in a very compact and extremely quiet cluster, a condition 
which contributes in no small degree to their excellent wintering qualities. 
The drones are the largest of all drones of this species, and are covered 
with a thick coat of gray fuzz. The queens vary from a light color to a 
very dark leather color, the typical queen being, however, dark bronze, 
large, well rounded, strong and active. 

Italians, the first of the foreign races to be introduced into this country, 
are much more widely known, and have with reason found great favor, 
since they are industrious, good defenders of their hives, and excellent 
honey gatherers, as well as handsome in appearance, being usually evenly 
marked with three yellow bands across the anterior portion of the abdomen. 
The blood has become so disseminated through the apiaries of the country 
that many hybrid bees having but one to two yellow bands are counted as 
Italians, and their cross disposition, derived through the males of the 
common race, is charged to the Italians. Strains of Italians pure in blood 



Bec-Keeping. 385 

have been bred by selection in this country until the three yellow bands 
have become so wide as to be nearly or quite joined, and in some instances 
nearly the whole abdomen is yellow. In general, however, as regards gath- 
ering powers it does not seem that any improvement has been made by this 
selection, the dark or leather-colored Italians proving, all in all, more 
vigorous, gentle and better honey gatherers, wdiile as regards wintering 
they are also superior. It must be acknowledged, however, that the Italian 
race is slightly inferior in wintering qualities to all of the others wdiich 
have been generally introduced into America. 

Cyprians, from the island of Cyprus, may be taken as a general type 
with which to compare other eastern races. They are small bodied, more 
slender, in fact, than any of the European races of bees. The abdomen 
is more pointed and shows, when the bees are purely bred, three light- 
colored bands on the upper surface, and considerable yellow on the under 
side. Between the wing attachments on the thorax is a little prominence, 
shaped like a half moon, which is usually quite plainly yellow in oolor. 
The queens are small bodied, yellow in color, with more or less black at 
the tip of the abdomen. The drones have a heavy coat of fuzz on the 
thorax, and the abdomen presents a mottled yellow appearance, being often 
highly yellow. Cyprians possess longer tongues and greater wing-power 
than other races. This, combined with great prolificness and most remark- 
able activity, renders them the best of honey gatherers. In temper, how- 
ever, they may be regarded as rather aggressive, rendering their manage- 
ment by any who are not experts extremely difficult. This feature may, 
however, be largely overcome by crossing the queens of this race with the 
drones of very gentle types. In this manner bees are produced that are 
readily amenable to smoke and ordinary methods in manipulation, com- 
bined with the excellent honey-gathering powers and prolificness of the 
eastern races. 

Cyprio-CMmiolans and Cyprio-Caucasians. — By crossing the Cyprian and 
Carniolan races a type might be developed which would combine the excel- 
lent traits of both of these. The first matings of Cyprians and Carniolans 
were made in 1883, in Carniola itself, thus insuring positively the fecunda- 
tion of the Cyprian queens and Carniolan drones. Bees combining the blood 
of the two races in various proportions have since been tested for years in 
comjiarison with all other known races, with the result that the cross men- 
tioned above has been found to exceed all of the pure races in honey-gath- 
ering powers, owing undoubtedly to the combination of great energy, hardi- 
ness, prolificness and wing-power, as well as greater length of tongue — a 
fact established by actual measurements. Similar results, with even greater 



386 Bee-Eeeping. 

gentleness, may be expected from the cross obtained between Cyprian 
queens and Caucasian drones. 

Syrian and Palestine or "Holy-Land" Bees. — What has been said of 
Cyprians may be taken to apply in a general sense to Syrian and Palestine 
bees, except that in these the good qualities are slightly less prominent, 
while some of the bad ones of the Cyprians are accentuated. No separate 
description of these is, therefore, particularly necessary in this place. 

German, Common Black, or Brown Bees. — The bees commonly found 
wild, and cultivated to a greater or less extent, in this country, and known 
under the above name, are probably derived from early introductions from 
the old world. ^ In comparison with the races above enumerated, they may 
be said to be inferior, since they possess the least energy in honey collect- 
ing, are less prolific, and not as good defenders of their hives. Under 
favorable conditions, however, as regards pasturage they may be relied 
upon for excellent results. They are, however, spiteful under manipula- 
tion, and have the disagreeable habit of running from the combs and drop- 
ping in bunches on the ground, likewise of flying from the hive entrance 
and attacking passers by. They are more easily discouraged than other 
bees during slack times as regards honey production, and this is doubtless 
the main reason for their generally inferior economic value. 

W^HAT HIVES TO ADOPT. 

The suspended Langstroth frame is used more than any other in this 
country and all the other hives are nearly all on this principle. 

There being no patent on the Langstroth hive, and accurately made hives 
being obtained at moderate prices from hive factories in various parts of 
the countr}', it is taken for granted that the enterprising beginner will 
adopt a simple form embodying this principle — the loose-fitting, suspended 
comb frame — as its main feature. The hive should not only be substan- 
tially built, but should have accurate bee-spaces and a close-fitting, rain- 
proof cover or roof. Factory-made hives, as a rule, best meet these require- 
ments, as both lock joints and halved corners can only be made to advan- 
tage by machinery, and the expert hive builder understands, of course, the 
absolute necessity of great accuracy in bee-spaces, as well as the great de- 
sirability of good material and workmanship. Provision should also be 
made for winter protection. 

For comb honey, hives permitting the insertion in the brood apartment 
of any number of frames up to eight, or frequently up to ten, are most 
in use. In securing extracted honey, those with ten to twelve frames in 



Bee-Keeping. 38.7 

each story are preferable, and as many stories, one above the other, are 
employed as the strength of the colony and a given harvest may require. 
A construction, therefore, which readily admits of expansion and of con- 
traction, as occasion demands, is desirable. 

As factory-made hives are superior and also quite cheap it is advisable to 
use them in preference to the home-made hive, especially in the commercial 
apiary. Upon application to our office we give full explanation where 
these hives may be obtained and the price of the same. This offer also 
applies to all other bee-keepers' accessories necessary in the apiary. 

MANAGEMENT IN SWARMING. 

Natural Swarming. — When a swarm is seen issuing or in the air, the 
best thing to do is, in general, simply to wait a bit. The weather is usu- 
ally rather warm then, and rushing about to get tin pans, dinner gongs, 
spraying outfits, etc., aside from its disagreeableness, may get one so excited 
and into such a perspiration as to unfit him to do with the bees that which 
is likely to be necessary a few minutes later. The bees will probably 
gather in a clump on a tree or bush near the apiary, and however formid- 
able getting them into the hive may at first seem, nothing wll be simpler 
than shaking them into their new hive, or into a basket or box, from 
which they may be poured in front of the hive, just as one would pour 
out a measure of wheat or beans. If any stick to the basket or box, invert 
it and give a sharp thump with one edge against the ground. If the hive 
has been standing in the shade so that the boards composing it are not 
heated, and if it be now well shaded and plenty of ventilation be given 
above and below, the bees are almost certain to take possession at once and 
begin work actively. The securing of swarms can be made, however, 
even simpler than this by having the colonies placed several feet apart on 
a smooth lawn or dooryard and clipping one wing of each laying queen so 
as to prevent her flying. The prime or first swarm from each hive is 
accompanied by the old queen, and if she be clipped she will of course fall 
from the alighting board to the ground and may be secured in a cage. 
The bees will circle about a few times and return. Meanwhile the only 
thing for the attendant to do is to replace the parent colony by an empty 
hive. The returning bees will enter the latter and the queen may be 
allowed to go in with them, the cage being placed with its open end di- 
rectly against the entrance to insure this. The swarm is thus made to 
hive itself. 

The parent colony removed to a new stand a rod or more away will 
rarely give a second swarm. But to make certain all queen cells except 



388 Bee-Keeping. 

one may be cut out four or five days after the issuance of the first swarm. 
At the same time one-third to one-half of the remaining bees of the re- 
moved colony may be shaken at the entrance of the hive containing the 
swarm. This reduces the population of the parent colony greatly, but the 
loss is soon made good by the young workers emerging, and the new queen 
which will issue from the single queen-cell, spared when cutting out cells, 
will soon restock the hive with brood. The shaking out of additional 
bees, coupled with the removal of all queen cells but one, will prevent for 
the time all further swarming from the given hive, and in most instances 
end it for the season. The bees thus added to the newly hived swarm, 
even though too young to enter the field at once as honey gatherers, will 
nevertheless release from inside work an equal number of older bees, an- 
abling the latter to go out as field bees. 

Each after-swarm (second, third, ete.), it should be borne in mind, is 
accompanied by one or more unimpregnated queens, and these must not 
be clipped until they have flown out and mated. The regular deposition 
of eggs in worker cells may nearly always be regarded as a safe sign that 
mating has taken place. Eggs will usually be found in such cells within 
the ^rst ten days of the queen's life. After-swarms may remain in tlie 
air, circling about for some time, and they frequently cluster high — a good 
reason, in addition to the more important fact that their issuance is not 
consistent with the production of the most surplus honey, for the preven- 
tion of all after-swarming. 

INSECT AND OTHER ENEMIES. 

The bee or wax moth (GaUeria mellonella Linn.) is regarded by those 
unfamiliar with modem methods in bee keeping as a very serious enemy 
to success in this work. It was frequently such when only the common 
black bee was kept and the old way of managing, or rather of trusting to 
luck, was followed. But with the better races now introduced and with 
improved hives and methods, and especially with the care that is now given 
to have no colonies queenless long at a time, the wax-moth larvas are no 
longer regarded with great concern. 

Some species of wasps take a little honey at times — more particularly 
when hives are opened — and they annoy the bees; others capture and eat 
workers, as do also the large ant-like "cow-killers" (Mutillidae), and cer- 
tain predaceous flies (Asilidse), true bugs (Phymatidse), and neuropterous 
and orthopterous insects (Libellulidae and Mantidse). The larvae of cer- 
tain beetles (Dermestidae and Tenebrio) feed upon pollen and the cast-off 
skins of developing larvae and pupae, and certain of the Meloid larvae at- 



Bee-Keeping. 389 

tach themselves to the bodies of bees as parasites. Ants (Formicidae) and 
cockroaches (Blattidae), which gather above the quilts and between the 
quilts and the tops of the frames in order to be benefited by the warmth 
of the cluster of bees, sometimes help themselves to honey, and their pres- 
ence annoys the bees more or less. Some of the insects here mentioned are 
only found locally, the predaceous ones being confined mainly to the South, 
while it may be said that the general welfare of strong colonies is not 
often materially affected nor the return noticeably reduced through the at- 
tacks of any of them. 

Spiders, toads, and lizards destroy, in addition to many injurious insects, 
also some bees, and should be tolerated in the vegetable garden rather than 
in the apiary. 

Swallows, kingbirds or bee martins, mice, skunks, and bears only occa- 
sionally commit depredations in the apiary. 

Properly constructed hives enable the bees to limit in a great measure 
the injury which these various enemies might inflict, and the avoidance of 
overswarming, with care to insure the constant presence of a prolific queen 
and a supply of food suited to the needs of the colony at the time, will 
keep it populous and therefore in shape to repel attacks or to make good 
most of the unavoidable losses. 

ROBBER BEES. 

Robbing is sometimes a more serious matter, although it very rarely hap- 
pens that a little careful attention just at the right time on the part of the 
bee keeper would not avoid all serious trouble on this score. When bees 
find nothing to gather during weather when they can still fly out they 
are easily tempted to appropriate the stores of weaker colonies. Exposure 
of combs of honey at such times may even occasion a combined attack 
upon a good colony otherwise quite able to take care of itself. It is then 
that the greatest destruction ensues, for such a colony will defend itself 
vigorously, and a pitched battle, with perhaps fifty or sixty thousand Ama- 
zons on either side, leaves the ground literally strewn with dead and 
dying. 

If the invaders conquer, every drop of honey is taken from the few van- 
quished that are likely to be still alive; and in turn the despoilers invari- 
ably fight among themselves as to the possession of the booty. When the 
robbing takes place during the absence of the owner the condition of the 
robbed colony may not attract immediate attention and during warm 
weather moth larvae gain full possession of the combs within a few days. 
When this condition is observed the whole damage is very likely to be at- 



390 Basket Willow Growing. 

.tribijted to the moth larvse. Colonies that have been left queenless for 
some time, and those weakened by disease or by overswarming, are especial 
marks fur such attacks. Of course there defects should be remedied when- 
ever observed, but meanwhile, if legitimate field work is likely to be inter- 
rupted, every colony should be assisted in protecting itself against assault 
by having its hive made secure and the entrance such a narrow pass as to 
enable a few workers to repel attack there. 

Should robbers get well started before being observed, the entrance of 
the hive should be narrowed at once, and wet grass or weeds may be thrown 
loosely over it, or a pane of glass may be stood against the front of the 
hive in a slanting manner to confuse the intruders. In extreme cases the 
attacked colonies may be removed to a cellar for a few days, plenty of 
ventilation being given during confinement, and a new location, apart 
from other colonies, selected, on which they are to be placed just at night- 
fall; or, instead of putting them in the cellar, they may be taken a mile 
or more away and returned only when the danger has passed. With these 
precautions, little loss is to be feared on this score. 

In general, the intelligent owner whio gives careful attention to certain 
important points in bee managing finds that he very rarely has disease to 
contend with, and that the reduction of profits through the depredations 
of bee enemies is not, in most parts of the Union, a- serious discourage- 
ment. Although it seems that te risks in these directions are even less in 
bee keeping. than those usually met in the keeping of other animals, which, 
like bees, are legitimately made to contribute to the wealth of the individual 
and of the nation. 



BASKET WILLOW GROWING. 

There are very many farms which contain some low land through which 
runs a small stream, and besides we have all the bottom lands which oc- 
casionally will nearly every year overflow. Those lands are too often al- 
lowed to run to waste, dense growths of weeds and scrub prospering in 
the rich, moist soil. 

Willow planting generally is done in the" autumn; should be in rows, 
the sets or cuttings, according to older methods, being placed about ten 
inches in length and planted in the ground until only an inch and a half 
protrudes above the ground. Willows are planted from nine inches to a 
foot apart in rows two and one-half feet to a yard distant from one an- 
other, thus allowing from about 14,000 to 23,000 to the acre. This method 



Basket Willow Growing. 391 

of wide planting is followed for several reasons, it, of course, being cheaper 
to plant fewer cuttings and the cost of cultivation being reduced, the 
wide rows allowing for the use of a plow. It is also understood that the 
more shoots from a stool or stump the greater the yield. Where the cut- 
tings have been planted on meadow or corn land the first year the rows 
are hoed two or three times and later run through with a light plow. 
After the first year only the plow is used for the cultivation. On bottom 
land, however, they are only cultivated once, and thereafter only grassed 
with a sickle. 

The close planting of willows will yield both a heavier crop and longer, 
more even sized and better rods are obtained — straight, less branchy and 
less tapering. When willows are planted close together, all weeds and 
grass, the foes of the willow, should be kept out. 

Osiers should be cut the first year, even if no valuable material can be 
obtained, for if this is delayed until the second year, there is apt to be a 
tendency to branch, so that less valuable material can be cut. This cut- 
ting should be done during the winter, and as near the ground as possible. 
The bimdles of these cuttings should then be kept in fresh, if possible in 
running, water, until sprouts appear, when they will be ready to peel. 
Willow thus peeled is of a fine white color, while those which are treated 
by steam or boiling for the removal of the bark are of a dark color, but 
experience has shown that baskets made of boiled willow are more durable 
than those made from the white rods of spring peeling. The operation is 
so simple that old persons incapable of arduous labor can make fair wages 
doing this sort of work. 

And yet the people may ask, is there a market for willow-ware in this 
State? Ask the merchants dealing in baskets where they have to buy the 
necessary supply. We send baskets for all purposes, and even baskets not 
looking so fine, but rough, would be in demand not alone in the towns, 
but among the farmers. The manufacture of willow is what might be 
termed a "house industry," in which the men, women and children are 
engaged in peeling and .splitting the rods and weaving the baskets. In 
Europe many a farmer raises willows and makes his own supply of bas- 
kets, besides supplying his neighbors and friends. Why not try this in- 
dustrv in the South? 



PART X. 



USEFUL RECIPES AND INFORMATION FOR 
ORCHARD, GARDEN AND POULTRY YARD. 



ACRES. 



SQUARE RODS AND FEET -IN ONE ACRE. 



An acre contains 43,560 square feet. 

A plat of ground 208% feet square is very nearly an acre, being just 1-10 
of a rod over. A nearer approximation is 208 feet and 8i/^ inches. The 
square of this number differs less than a foot from an acre, being 43^559 
1-6 feet. 

A plat of ground 12 rods, 10 feet and Si^ inches square is an acre. Por 
ordinary purposes it will answer to take a plat 12 2-3 rods square, which 
will give IGO 2-5 rods, 160 being an acre. 

An acre is contained in a plat 3 by 53 1-3 rods, or 4 by 40, or 5 by 32, 
or 6 by 26 2-3, or 7 by 22 6-7, or 8 by 20, or 9 by 17 7-9; or 10 by 16, or 
11 by 14 6-11; or 12 by 13 1-3. Our farmer boys can soon learn this last 
table, and it will often be of use to them. 



AGES OF ANIMALS. 

Animal. Years. Animal. Years. 

Wliale, estimated 500 Cow 20 

Elephant _ _ ...400 Deer .„ „ „ 20 

Swan 30 Rhinorceros _ _ 20 

Tortoise 100 Swine _ 20 

Eagle luO Wolf „ „ 20 

Raven _ 100 Cat „ 15 

Camel _ 100 Fox 15 

Lion „ 70 Dog _ ,._ 10 

Porpoise 30 Sheep „ 10 

Horse 30 Rabbit _ 7 

Bear ._ „ 20 Squirrel .7 



ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS. 

For Caustic Soda. — Potash volatile acid mixed with vinegar or lemon 
juice, and drink copiously. 

For Nitrate of Silver. — Drink strong salt water. 

For Stryclvnine. — Nux vomica or mustard as an emetic. 



39(5 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

For Bedbug Poison or Paris Green, Lead, Zinc or Vermilion. — Give im- 
mediate doees of milk or white of eggs. 

Arsenic Poison. — Give emetic at once of mustard and salt and follow 
with sweet milk, oil or butter melted. 

Carbolic Acid Poison. — Give flower and water in large doses. 

For Agua Fortis, Muriatic Acid, Oil of Vitriol. — Mix soap and magne- 
sia; a drink every three minutes. 

Copperas Poison or Lye. — Give immediate emetics of soap or mustard. 

For Laudanum, Morphine, Opium. — Give strong coffee and tea, fol- 
lowed by emetics of ground mustard or grease; keep the patient in mo- 
tion and allow no sleep. 

The safest plan if poison is unknown is to give emetics of mustard or 
soap suds. 



APPLES AND POTATOES. 

TO FIND NUMBER OF BUSHELS IN BIN OR BOX. 

Eule: ]\Iultiply the length, breadth and depth together, all in feet, 
and tliis product by 8, pointing off one figure in the product for decimal. 

Example: How many bushels of apples are there in a bin 13 feet 
long, 3 feet wide and 4 feet deep : 

12X3X4=144X.8=:115.2. 
Answer: 115.2 bushels. 



AVEEAGE ANNUAL EAINFALL IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Place. Inches. Place. Inches. 

Neah Bay, Wash. Ter 123 Savannah, Georgia 48 

Sitka, Alaska 83 Springdale, Kentucky 48 

Ft. Haskins, Oregon 60 Fortress Monroe, Virginia 47 

Mt. Vernon, Alabama 60 Memphis, Tennessee 45' 

Baton Eouge, Louisiana 69 Newark, New Jersey 44 

Meadow Valley, California 57 Boston, Massachusetts 44 

Ft. Tonson, Indian Ter 57 Brunswick, Maine 44 

Ft. Myers, Florida 56 Cincinnati, Ohio 44 

Washington, Arkansas 54 New Haven, Connecticut 44 

Huntsville, Alabama 54 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 44 

Natchez, Mississippi — 53 Charleston, S. Carolina „ 43 

New Orleans, Louisiana 51 Now York City, N. Y 43 



Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 



397 



Gaston, N. Carolina 43 

Kichmond, Indiana 43 

Marietta, Ohio 43 

St. Louis, Missouri 43 

Muscatine, Iowa 43 

Baltimore, Maryland 41 

New Bedford, Massachusetts 41 

Providence, Khode Island 41 

Ft. Smith, Arkansas 40 

Hanover, 'New Hampshire 40 

Ft. Vancouver 38 

Cleveland, Ohio 37 

Pittsburg, Pennsylvania 37 

Washington, D. C 37 

White Sulphur Springs, Va 37 

Ft. Gibson, Indian Ter 3G 

Key West, Florida 36 

Peoria, Illinois 35 

Burlington, Vermont - 34 

Buffalo, New York 33 

Ft. Brown, Texas 33 



Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas „ 31 

Detroit, Michigan 30 

Milwaukee, Wisconsin 30 

Penn Yan, New York 2S 

Ft. Kearney 25 

Ft. Snelling, Minnesota. 25 

Salt Lake City, Utah Ter 23 

]\Iackinac, Michigan 23 

San Francisco, California 21 

Dallas, Oregon 21 

Sacramento, California 21 

Ft. Massachusetts, Colorado 17 

Ft. Marcy, New Mexico Ter !(> 

Ft. Eandall, Dakota Ter. 16 

Ft. Defiance, Arizona. 14 

Ft. Craig, New Mexico Ter 11 

San Diego, California 

Ft. Colville, Wash. Ter 9 

Ft. Bliss, Texas 9 

Ft. Bridger, Utah Ter G 

Ft. Garland, Colorado 6 



AMOUNT OF BAEBED WIPE EEQUIEED FOE FENCES. 

Estimated number of pounds of barbed wire required to fence space or 
distances mentioned, with one, two or three lines of wire, based upon each 
pound of wire measuring one rod (I6I/0 feet). 

1 Line. 2 Lines. 3 Lines. 

One square acre 50 2-3 lbs. 101 1-3 lbs. 152 lbs. 

One side of a square acre 12 2-3 lbs. 25 1-3 lbs. 38 lbs. 

One square half-acre 36 lbs. 72 lbs. 108 lbs. 

One square mile....: 1280 lbs. 2560 lbs. 3840 lbs. 

One side of a square mile 320 lbs. 640 lbs. 960 lbs. 

One rod in length 1 lb. 2 lbs. 3 lbs. 

100 rods in length 100 lbs. 200 lbs. 300 lbs. 

100 feet in length 6 1-16 lbs. 121/8 lbs. 18 3-16 lbs. 

26 



398 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

BITES AND STINGS BY INSECTS. 

A mixture of equal jDarts of bismuth and glycerine generally affords re- 
lief. Should the part show inflammation, apply diluted carbolic acid; 
one part of acid to thirty parts of water; saturate a flannel cloth and place 
over the parts; change every half hour; give the patient also salts or castor 
oil to keep ilie bowels open. For bee or wasp sting there is nothiug 
better than the application of weakened ammonia; if the sting is still in 
the flesh it should be removed with the tweezers or knife. 

Horses are liable to be stung by hornets, wasps and bees. If there are 
only one or two stings made, no interference is necessary, but sometimes 
a larger number of poisonous punctures have been made, and then the 
best treatment is the application of spirits of turpentine and laudanum in 
equal proportions. 

The bites of the gadfly are so troublesome in their effects that it is some- 
times desirable to prevent them if possible. This is done by making a 
strong infusion of the green bark of the elder, washing the flanks, etc., 
with it before going out. 



TO DESTEOY ANTS. 

Black ants may be easily dispersed by scattering around their abodes 
green or dried wormwood. Either red or black ants may also be dispersed 
by scattering powdered borax around their walks. Oil of turpentine placed 
around the cracks of floors or walls generally drives them away. 



EEMEDY FOR BLINDNESS OF POULTEY. 

Laudanum 1 teaspoonful. 

Wator 1 teaspoonful. 

Drop a few drops into the chicken's eye and bathe the chicken with 
warm water. 



Useful Recipes for Orrlnird . (lunlen and PoiiUry Yard. ."I'JU 

NUMBER BRICK REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT ANY BUILDING. 

^ . ,., ^ ,„, ,, Number of Bricks to Thickness ot 

SupiTticiiil Keet of Wnll , , 

4 incli 

1 7 

1 7 

2 15 

3 23 

4 30 

5 38 

6 45 

7 53 

8 60 

9 68 

10 75 

20 150 

30 225 

40 300 

50 375 

60 450 

70 525 

80 600 

. 90 ; 675 

100 750 

200 1,500 

300 2,250 

400 3,000 

500 3,750 

600 4,500 

700 -5,250 

800 6,000 

900 6,750 

1000 7,500 



BUG POISON. 

The application of corrosive sublimate and muriatic acid, equal parts, dis- 
solved in four parts of water is a powerful remedy for bed and all other 
bugs and ants. Great care must be used in handling the mixture, as it is 
poisonous. 



h 8 inch 


12 inch 


K) inch 


20incli 


21 Inch 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


45 


68 


90 


113 


135 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


75 


113 


150 


188 


225 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


450 


675 


900 


1,125 


1,350 


600 


900 


1,200 


1,500 


1,800 


750 


1,125 


1,500 


1,875 


2,250 


900 


1,350 


1,800 


2,250 


2,700 


1,050 


1,575 


2,100 


2,625 


3,150 


1,200 


1,800 


2,400 


3,000 


3.600 


1,350 


2,025 


2,700 


3,375 


4,050 


1,500 


2,250 


3,000 


3,750 


4,500 


' 3,000 


4,500 


6,000 


7,500 


9,000 


4,500 


6,750 


9,000 


11,250 


13.500 


6,000 


9,000 


12,000 


15,000 


18,000 


7,500 


11,250 


15,000 


18,750 


22,500 


9,000 


13,500 


18,000 


22,500 


27,000 


10,500 


15,750 


21,000 


26,250 


31,500 


12,000 


18,000 


24,000 


30,000 


36,000 


13,500 


20,250 


27,000 


33,750 


40,500 


15,000 


22,500 


30,000 


37,500 


45,000 



400 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

BUSINESS LAWS IX BRIEF. 

Ignorance of law excuses none. 

It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 

The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 

An agreement without consideration is void. 

Signatures made with lead-pencil are good in law. 

A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. 

The acts of one partner bind all the others. 

Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced. 

A contract made with a minor is invalid. 

A contract made with a lunatic is void. 

Contracts for advertising in Sunday newspapers are invalid. 

Each individual in a partnership is responsible for the whole amount of 
the debts of the firm. 

Principals are responsible for the acts of their agents. 

Agents arc responsible to their principals for errors. 

A note given by a minor is void. 

It is not legally necessary to say on a note "for value received." 

A note drawn on Sunday is void. 

A note obtained by fraud, or from a person in a state of intoxication, 
cannot be collected. 

If a note be lost or stolen, it does not release the maker; he must pay. 

The indorser of a note is exempt from liability if not served with notice 
of its dishonor within twenty-four hours of its non-payment. 



CABBAGE TO KEEP. 

When the cabbage is ripe and hard and before heavy frosts fall, pull 
the heads up by the roots and place them in pits in the ground, heads 
down; cover with straw and earth to keep the frost out, or fix a strong 
string around the stalk and suspend the cabbage from the timbers of the 
ceiling, head downward. The cellar should be cool and dry. This will 
preserve them with a certaint}^ Another good method is to cut the cab- 
bage from the stump, pack close in a cask, taking care to fill up all the 
vacancies with dry chaff or bran, and keep in a dry cellar. 



Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 401 

CABBAGE WORMS. 

Cabbage worms may be destroyed effectually by sprinkling the cabbage 
dining the hottest part of the day with ice-cold salt water; any part of 
tlie water striking the worms will immediately kill them. 



CAMPHOR A CURE FOR CHOLERA. 

The following simple remedy was issued in hand-bill form by the Hiber- 
nia Printing Office, Dublin, Ireland, during the severe visitation of the 
cholera in 1836, and was the means of saving thousands of lives. It was 
also used with valuable effect in 1848, and we would advise its use again 
should that epidemic visit our shores. In any case, however, no harm could 
be done by liaving it in the house during the warm months. 

Dissolve one ounce of camphor in six ounces of spirits of wine and give 
a small bottle of it to any intelligent person in your neighborhood who 
will undertake to administer it to his poor neighbors when they are seized 
with cholera or any of its symptoms, without deviating in the slightest 
degree from the following instructions: 

When any person is seized with symptoms of cholera, such as vomiting, 
purging, sudden weakness, coldness, cramps or spasms, do not give them 
brandy or whiskey or any kind of medicine whatever, but put them to bed 
at once, covering them warmly, not overloading them with bed clothes and 
as soon as you possibly can let the patient take two drops (not more) of 
the camphor mixture on a little pounded sugar in a spoonful of cold or iced 
water. In five minutes after let him take a second dose of two drops in the 
same way, and in five minutes more repeat the same thing. He is then to 
wait ten or fifteen minutes to see whether or not there is a sense of returning 
warmth, with a disposition toward perspiration and manifest decrease of 
sickness, cramps, etc., when, if necessary, he must take two drops, as before, 
and repeat the dose every five minutes until twelve or fourteen drops have 
been taken. In administering this remedy you must particularly observe 
that if the patient takes anything of any sort or kind, except cold or iced 
water while the medicine is intended to operate, its whole effect will be 
destroyed, for the least foreign medicine will neutralize the camphor, which 
is given to check vomiting and to produce a free warm perspiration. The 
use of cold or iced water is given on the advice of the late celebrated and 
successful Dr. Paddock, of London, who always allowed his patients to 
drink cold or iced water, as it tends to promote free perspiration, and 
also the abundant discharge of yellow bile. 



403 Useful Becipps for Orcliard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

The jjatient must not be allowed to rise and expose him or herself to 
the slightest degree of cold, and should not be tormented with baths, steam- 
ings or rubbing of any kind, but permitted to lie still, as he will fall asleep 
when persiDiration comes on, and after some hours will, with God's assist- 
ance, awake well, though weak and languid and perhaps a little feverish, in 
which case he may get a dose, say a teaspoonful of Gregory's powder or 
rhubarb and magnesia, with a little peppermint water or weak sal volatile 
and water to wash it down, but must be kept quiet, taking only a little soup, 
broth or gruel for a day or two. 

Lord Ponsonby writing to his brother, the Bishop of Derry, stated that 
to his knowledge these camphor drops had proved to be a certain cure for 
cholera, both in France and Germany, whenever taken in time, and the 
cure is generally effected before it is possible to procure a physician — that 
is less than m an hour. 



HOW TO DESTROY CATERPILLAES. 

Take a chafing dish with lighted charcoal and place it under the branches 
of the tree or bush whereon are the caterpillars. The vapor of the sul- 
phur, which is death to these insects, and the suffocating freed air ari.jLir 
from the charcoal will not only destroy all that are on the tree, buf will 
effectually prevent the shrubs from being, at the season, infested with 
them. A pound of sulphur will clear as many trees as grow on seve.-al 
acres. 

Another method of driving these insects off fruit trees is to boil to- 
gether a quantity of rye, wormwood and common tobacco (of equal parts) 
in common water. The liquor should be very strong. Sprinkle this on 
the leaves and young branches every morning and evening during the time 
the fruit is ripening. 



CATTLE FOOD TO TONE UP SYSTEM. 



Locust meal, 6 pounds. 
Corn meal, 12 pounds. 
Linseed meal, 4 pounds. 
Sulphur, 1 pound. 
Saltpeter, 1 pound. 
Common salt, 2 pounds. 
Gentian, y^ pound. 



Useful Eecipcs for OirlmnJ. (litnlcn and PonUry Yard. 403 

Sulphate of iron, 1/2 pound. 

Aniseed, ^/j_ pound. 

Ginger, 1 pound. 

Mix two lablespoonfuls with feed at night. 



CEMENTS. 

Cement for injured trees may be made with one part of wood ashes, 
one part of yellow ochre, five parts white lead, one part turpentine and one 
part linseed oil. 

CEMENTS FOR DRAINAGE. 

Pipes may be made by one part of water, cement and three parts of sand. 
The cement and sand must be mixed before adding the water and freed 
from all vegetable or foreign matter. The cement must be of good quality. 

Floor cement for cellars, barns and outhouses should be made of one 
part cement and five parts of sharp sand. Mix with water until the mass 
works w^ell and spread on the floor two inches thick; smooth down with 
shovel and finish with the trowel. 

To make concrete walks, dig out a foundation two feet deep, fill in with 
brickbats or coarse shell; let this settle and tramp well; take one bushel of 
coarse sharp sand and mix with one barrel cement; spread this on the 
foundation to the height required; tramp solid; finish with pure cement 
mortar and trowel. 

CEMENT FOR LEATHER. 

Twelve parts gutta percha. 

Three parts India rubber. 

One part pitch. 

One part shellac. 

One part linseed oil. 

IMelt all together and apply hot; 

CEMENT FOR GLASS. 

Isinglass, one part, put in four parts of water and add four parts of 
glacial acetic acid. 

CEMENT FOR STOVES. 

Mix equal parts of ashes and salt with tepid water and apply to cracks 
while the stove is cold. 

IRON CEMENT. 

Two parts iron filings, one part clay; pound up two parts of fire brick. 
Mix the whole with warm salt water. 



404 Useful Recipes for Orchard^ Garden and Poultry Yard. 

COMPOSITION WATERPROOF FOR BOOTS 

Dissolve by heat one ounce pure bottle India rubber shavings in one 
quart neat's foot oil, and add two ounces tallow. This makes a fine water- 
proof composition for boots, and is recommended to sportsmen. 



VEGETABLE TIME TABLE. 

LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO COOK GARDEN VEGETABLES. 

Young fresh garden products require less time for cooking than older 
ones. One important rule should be followed, namely, when vegetables 
have been cooked tender remove from the fire as soon, as possible, and re- 
move the water, where there is an excess, as in potatoes or beets. An experi- 
enced housewife gives th following time table for the preparation of 
vegetables : 

Bake potatoes, 30 to 45 minutes. 

Steam potatoes, 20 to 40 minutes. 

Boil potatoes (in their skins), 20 to 30 minutes. 

Boiled potatoes (pared), 25 to 45 minutes. 

Asparagus (young), 15 to 30 minutes. 

Beets (youjig), 45 minutes. 

Corn (green), 12 to 20 minutes. 

Cauliflower, 20 to 40 minutes. 

Lima or shell beans, 45 minutes to li/4 hours. 

Onions, 30 to 60 minutes. 

Oyster plant, 45 to 60 minutes. 

Peas, 20 to 60 minutes. 

Parsnip (young), 30 to 45 minutes. 

String beans, 30 to 60 minutes. 

Summer squash, 20 to 60 minutes. 

Turnips (young), 45 minutes. 

Tomatoes (stewed), 45 to 60 minutes. 

When vegetables are served with boiled salt meat, they must be cookod 
in the liquor from the meat after it has been removed. 



Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and PouUry Yard. 405 

CORN, TO MEASURE IN THE CRIB. 

Rule 1 : Measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside the 
rail ; multiply them together and divide by 2 ; the result is the number of 
bushels of shelled corn. 

2nd. Level the corn so it is of equal depth throughout, multiply the 
length, breadth and depth together, and this product by 4, and cut off 
one figure to the right of the product; the( other will represent the num- 
ber of bushels of shelled corn. 

3rd. Multiply length by height, and then by width, add two ciphers to 
the result and divide by 1241; this gives the number of bushels of ear 
corn. 

TO MEASURE GRAIN IN THE GRANARY. 

Divide the cubic feet by 56, and multiply by 45, and the result .vill be 
struck measure. 



CREOSOTING FENCE POSTS AND GRAPE TRELLISES. 

The posts arc first deprived of all water by exposure to the sun, then 
artificially heated and plunged in a trough containing creosote to replace 
the water; several immersions are advisable. Posts served in this way 
are indestructible. 



EMULSIONS. 

(See Part IV of this book.) 



ESTIMATING MEASURES. 

A pint of water weighs nearly one pound, and is equal to 27 cubic inches, 
or a square box 3 inches long, 3 inches wide and 3 inches deep. 

A quart of water weighs nearly 2 pounds, and is equal to a square box 
of about 4x4 inches, and is 314 inches deep. 

A gallon of water weighs 8 to 10 pounds, according to the size of the 
gallon and is equal to a box Q>xQ inches square and 6, 7 or 714 inches 
deep. 

A peck is equal to a box 8x8 inches square and 8 inches deep. 

A bushel almost fills a box 12x12 inches square and 24 inches deep, or 
2 cubic feet. 



406 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and PouJtry Yard. 

A cubic foot of water weighs nearly 64 pounds (more correctly, 62i/> 
pounds) and contains 7 to 8 gallons, according to the kind of gallons 
used. 

A barrel 'ii water almost fills a box 3x2 feet square and li/o feet deep, 
or 6 cubic feet. 

Petroleum barrels contain 40 gallons, or nearly 5 cubic feet. 



FIEEPROOF PAINT. 



Take 20 pounds powdered glass, 20 pounds powdered porcelain, 10 
pounds of powdered stone, 10 pounds calcimed lime and 30 pounds of 
watergiass; mix the solid ingredients well, then add the waterglass and 
thin with rainwater down to the thickness of heavy paint; apply with a 
stiff brush to roof or building desired to make absolute fire proof. 



FLIES, TO DRIVE FROM STABLE. 

Scatter chloride of lime on a board in a stable to remove all kinds of 
flies, but more especially biting flies. Sprinkling beds of vegetables with 
even a weak solution effectually preserves them from caterpillars, slugs, 
etc. A paste of one part powdered chloride of lime and one-half part of 
some fatty matter placed in a narrow band around the trunk of the tree, 
prevents insects from creeping up it. Even rats, mice, cockroaches and 
crickets flee from it. 



GRAFTING WAX. 



Take 10 pounds of resin andi add two pounds of beeswax and one-fifth 
gallon of raw linseed oil ; melt the resin and beeswax, then add the linseed 
oil; as the mass cools work it with the hands in sticks or any shape de- 
sired. 



HOW TO MAKE HENS LAY IN WINTER. 

Give a portion of minced meat, mixed with their other food, every day, 
or as often as convenient, and see that they have plenty of gravel, old 
plastering, or powdered egg shells. The latter may bo mixed with their 



Useful Recipes for Orclmnl, Garden and Poultry Yard. 407 

food. Without some substance of this kind, which cannot be obtained 
when the ground is frozen or covered with snow, there will be nothing to 
form the shell. 



TO PEEVENT HENS FROM SITTING. 

Put in a trough sufficient water to make a depth of one inch ; place 
the hen therein, and cover the top for a about a day. The trough should 
be deep enough to allow the hen to stand up. 



AEMY WORMS. 



. Army worms may be effectually destroyed and checked by sprinkli-ng 
the vegetation in the garden or field with salt water. 



WHITEWASH. 



A good whitewash for fences, barns and outhouses may be made as fol- 
lows: Slack fresh lime in boiling water; to every three gallons of the 
whitewash add one quart of molasses and one pint of salt. This white- 
wash will not rub off. For coloring, add Prussian blue or red ochre 



HOW, TO WEIGH A HAYSTxiCK. 

Measure the length and breadth of the stack; take height frorA the 
ground to the eaves, add to this last one-half of the height from the eaves 
to the top; multiply length by breadth, and the product by the height, afl 
expressed in feet; divide the amount by 27, to find the cubic yards, which 
multiply by the number of pounds sujiposed to be in a cubic yard, viz. : 
in a stack of new hay, 132 pounds avoirdupois each; if old hay, 154 
pounds each. 



HOW TO PRESERVE EGGS. 

To each pailful of water, add two pints of fresh slacked lime, and ouf' 
pint of common salt; mix well. Fill your barrel half full with this fluid. 



408 Useful Recipes for Oi'charcl, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

put your eggs down in it anj^ time after June, and they will keep two 
years if desired. 



Insects of all description on plants, animals or in the house, may be 
destroyed by Pennyroyal dusted on the house plants, animals or crevices 
in the house, barn or poultry yard. Plant lice on rose bushes are destroyed 
by a lotion of quassia chips. Take four ounces of quassia chips and boil 
for ten minute?- in soft water, add four ounces of soap; strain, and the 
mixture is j-eady for use to sprinkle on the plants. 



LIME WATER. 

Liiae 4 ounces. 

Water 1 gallon. 

First slack the lime with a small portion of the water, then add the 
remainder and stir them together and cover the vessel immediately; in 
about three hours it is ready for use. Always keep in a well stoppered 
bottle. 



CHEESE MAKING. 

It is not difficult to make cheese for home use. Place the milk in a tin 
vessel and place the vessel in a larger one, to avoid burning the milk; 
place over a fire and heat to 80 degrees Fah, The milk \% then subjected 
to the action of the rennet, about one-half drachm to everj gallon of milk; 
stir in the milk for 20 minutes, then separate the liquid from the curd; 
cut the curd in small blocks; when the blocks crumble or separate, add 
three drachms of salt for every gallon of milk used. Form the curd then 
in the desired form and place under a press and leave for 18 hours; the 
cheese is then cured ; color the outside with some anatto and keep in a 
room or cellar in a temperature of about 70 degrees Fah. until ready to 
use the cheese for the table. 



PICKLE TO KEEP BEEF, TONGUES OR PORK. 

To one gallon of water add two pounds salt, three-fourths pound sugar, 
one-half ounce saltpeter, one-half ounce of potash ; boil togetlier and skim 
off the top; pour this pickle over the beef and keep the beef immersed iu 
the pickle by a weight. 



Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 409 

POULTRY FOOD TO MAKE HENS LAY. 

Powdered egg shells or lime, 8 ounces, sulphate of iron 8 ounces, pow- 
dered black pepper 2 ounces, powdered dog biscuit 12 ounces, powdered 
capsium 8 ounces; mix a tablespoonful in the feed for 25 hens. 



POULTRY, SIZE OF EGGS. 

Layers of large eggs, averaging about 7 to a pound : LaFleche, Houdans, 
Creve Coeurs, and Black Spanish. Layers of medium eggs, averaging 8 
to 9 pounds: Leghorns, Cochins, Brahmas, Polands, Dorkings, Games, 
and Sultans. 



PRESERVING BUTTER. 

To preserve butter, wrap the butter in clean cloth and submerge in 
strong salt brine. 



PROTECTION AGAINST FROST. 

To protect budding vines and blossoming fruit trees from damage which 
may be caused by late frosts, the Germans have, in some instances, resorted 
to smudges. Different materials are used for the purpose, old straw or 
hay, tar, leaves, etc., but success in each case depends upon the generation 
of sufficient smoke to cover the vines and trees to be protected. Doctor 
Noerdlinger, according to a consular report, at his chemical works at 
Florsheim en the Main, manufactures a patented smudge, called raucher- 
masse, the formula for which is a trade secret, which he claims has many 
advantages o\er the other materials used for smoking vines and trees, espe- 
cially tar. The patented article may be taken from the barrel with shovels 
and transferred to smaller receptacles, while tar, being thick and viscous, 
is difficult and disagreeable to handle. The combustion of the raucher- 
masse is more complete than that of tar, requires but little attention when 
burning; fresh quantities may be added to the fire without danger, and it 
leaves but little ash, while the ash percentage of tar is as high, in some 
cas«6, as 30 per cent. The rauchermasse may be burned in buckets, boxes, 
old barrels, etc., or in small holes made in the ground. It can be safely 
ignited with a match, or a handful of straw, shavings, paper, etc., dipped 
in petroleum, and can be stored indefinitely without deterioration. 



410 Useful Ilecipps for Orcluird, Garden and PrjuJtry Yard. 

PUTTY FOR HOTBED SASHES. 

Five pounds of whiting, one-half pound white lead, or boiled oil and 
whiting, mixed to desirable thickness. 



EENOVATING BUTTEE. 

Wash the butter in sweet milk or run the butter through the churn, then 
wash in clean cool water and the butter will be greatly improved. As the 
rancidity is freely soluble in pure milk and which the milk will absorb. 



REMEDIES FOR SCALDS AND BURNS. 

The immediate application of kerosene oil and the parts covered with 
flour affords relief, according to the Medical Record. Pure white lead 
paint applied is the safest and best remedy known for fire burns, friction 
or acid burns. 



TO ARREST BLEEDING. 

Mix two ounces charcoal and gum arable in powdered form, two ounces, 
and resin four ounces and apply to wounds. 



TO DESTROY COCKROACHES. 

This troublesome pest may be destroyed by a mixture of red lead, Indian 
meal and moJafses. This mixture is eaten by them and causes death. 
Powdered borax strewn around their haunts is also advisable. 



TO DESTROY RATS. 

POISONING. 

Barium Carbonate. — One of the cheapest and most effective poison? for 
rats and mice is barium carbonate, or barytes. This mineral has tlie ad- 
vantage of being without taste or smell; and, in the small quantities used 
in poisoning rats and mice, is harmless to larger animals. Its- action on 
rodent: is slow, but reasonably sure, and has the further advantage that 
the animals before dying, if exit be possible, usually leave the premises in 



Useful Recipes for Oirltftnl. (Jitrden and Poultry Yard. 



411 



search of water. Its employment in houses, therefore, is rarely f'-llov.ed 
bjy the anno}mg odor which attends the use of the more virulent poisons. 
The poison may be fed in the form of a dough made of one-fifth barytes 
and four-fifths meal, but a more convenient bait is ordinary oatmeal, with 
about one-eighth of its bulk of barytes, mixed with water into a stiff 
dough; or the barytes may be spread upon bread and butter or moistened 
toast. The prepared bait should be placed in rat runs, a small quantity 
at a place. If a single application of the poison fails to drive all rats from 
the premises, it should be repeated with a change of bait. 

Strychnine. —Sivy chn'me is a more virulent poison, but its action is so 
rapid that the animals often die upon the premises, a circumstance which 
prohibits its use in occupied dwellings. Elsewhere strychnine may be 
employed with great success. Dry strychnine crystals may be ins^^erted in 
small pieces of raw meat, Vienna sausage, or toasted cheese, and these 
placed in the lat runs; or oatmeal may be wet with a strychnine sirup, 
and small quantities laid out in the same way. 

Strychnine sirup is prepared as follows: Dissolve a half ounce of 
strychnia sulpliate in a pint of boiling water; add a pint of thick ^ugai 
sirup and stir thoroughly. A smaller quantity of the poison may be pre- 
pared with a pioportional quantity of water. In preparing the bait it is 
necessary that all the oatmeal should be moistened with sirup. Wheat is 
the most convenient alternative bait. It should be soaked over nigli« in 
the strychnine sirup. 

Other Poisons. — The two poisons most commonly used for rats and mice 
are arsenic and phosphorous, nearly all commercial preparations containing 
one or the other as a basis. While experiments prove that rats have great 
powers of resistance to arsenic, it may sometimes be used advantageously 
as an alternative poison. Preparations of phosphorus sold by druggistL- 
are often too weak to be effective ; and home-made mixtures, when of suf- 
ficient strength, are dangerous, as rats may carry the baits into walls or 
crannies and thus cause fires. For these and other reasons the Biological 
Survey does not recommend preparations containing phosphorus. 

Poison in the Poultry H"o«5e.— For poisoning rats in buildings and yards 
occupied by poultry, the following method is recommended : Two wooden 
boxes should be used, one considerably larger than the other, and each 
having two or more holes in the sides large enough to admit rats. The 
poisoned bait .should be placed on the bottom and, near the middle of the 
larger box, and the smaller box should then be inverted over it. Eat> 
thus have free access to the bait, but fowls are excluded. 



412 Vsifxd Receipts for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

TO DESTROY STUMPS. 

Stumps may be destroyed, by boring a hole 18 inches deep; put in the 
hole three ounces of saltpeter and fill the hole with water, stop up tight; 
a few weeks afterwards, during dry weather, apply fire and the stump 
will be entirely consumed. 



TO KILL BERMUDA OE OTHER GRASSES. 

No one questions the great value of Bermuda and Johnson grass or has 
fault to find with them, except the difficulty of getting rid of them. But 
this can be done when properly undertaken. An Alabama farmer says 
this about it: 

Bermuda grass, while one of the best pasture grasses we have in the 
South, is hard to kill out; in fact, it cannot be killed' at all by plowing in 
the spring and summer, unless the ground is very dry; but my plan is to 
plow it up m winter and let it freeze, and as soon as the ground thaws 
run a drag harrow over it, and let it freeze again, and as soon as the 
ground is dry enough cross plow, and let it freeze before harrowing. Do 
this three times, and you will not have much grass left, if any. 

T always plow shallow in Bermuda sod, and it takes two good horses to 
pull a small plow through the first time. 

I kill Johnson grass the same way, being careful not to allow any of it 
to seed the summer before, as the seed will lie in the ground all winter 
and come up in the spring. The ground must be plowed deep enough to 
turn out all the roots. 



TO MAKE CLOTH WATERPROOF FOR HOTBEDS AND OTHER 

USES. 

Steep the cJoth for thirty hours in a solution of two pounds of oak bark 
and twenty pounds of water. 



TO KEEP COVERS FOR HOTBEDS FROM MILDEWING. 

Steep the cloth in lime water for two hours, then hang out to dry. 



GRAVEL WALKS. 

To make gravel walks permanent, take lime and coal ashes, mix with 
gravel and pour hot coal tar over the walks. 



Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 413 

Stoves or ranges may be mended with equal parts of salt and wood 
ashes; mix with water until it forms a paste, and apply to the worn or 
cracked parts. 



TO PRESERVE LUMBER. 

Lumber treated with steam at a low pressure which has been passed 
through a vessel containing sulphate of zinc and alum. 



TO PRESERVE PLANTS. 

To preserve plants and flowers, with their natural color, shake them 
quite dry and immerse them in a solution of one pint salicylic acid and 
one quart of alcohol. 



GNATS. 



The application of spirits of camphor keeps gnats from man or beast 
and also reduces inflammation of the stings. 



TO PRESERVE ROPES. 

Ropes may be preserved by steeping in a solution of sulphate of copper, 
two ounces to one-half gallon of water and then immerse them in hot tar. 



TO PURIFY HONEY. 

To every ten gallons of honey add the whites of two eggs, beat the honey 
until froth appears, add water and boil, skim the top; allow it to stand a 
week, then draw off the pure honey from the bottom. 



TO PREVENT RUST. 

Implements of either iron or steel may be made rust-proof by the appli- 
cation with the brush of a solution of India rubber dissolved in benzine. 
To remove rust from iron or steel, cover the articles wit hsweet oil; in 24 
hours rub with iinslaked lime. 

27 



414 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Uardcii and Poultry Yard. 

TO TELL AGE OF A HORSE. 

At public t^ales one sees so many old animals sold for young ones that 
one who knoMs liow to tell their ages feels a little twinge of conscience on 
seeing a neighbor buy a 14.-year-old mare for a 6-year-old and pay a 6-year- 
old price for the same. This knowledge has been worth so many dollars 
to me, I know it will be of value to others. Nearly everyone can tell a 
very old horse from a very young one. Occasionally one sees a sleek, fat, 
high-lived animal 12 or 14 years old, passing, from general appearance, 
for a 5 or G-year-old. My father has a 4-year-old mare foundered and 
run down. The casual observer Avould say she is 15 anyway. General 
appearances are no criterion; neither are the eyes, nor the tushes, as some 
claim. What then? The front teeth of the lower jaw. There are six of 
them. They must be natural to be a true guide. A yearling has six, the 
two end ones being shorter and smaller than the other four. Deep cuts iu 
center, A two-year-old has six, cups not so deep as those of a yearling. 
A 3-year-old has two longer teeth in center, with two short ones on either 
side. A 4-year-old has four long teeth and one short one on either side. 
A 5-year-old has six long teeth with deep cups in center. A 6-year-old 
has cups of the center teeth very shallow. A 7-year-old has the center 
teeth worn smooth, cups of second pair partly worn, i. e., not so deep as 
those of the end teeth. An 8-year-old has the second pair of teeth worn 
nearly smootJi. A 9-year-old has the cups of end teeth very shallow. A 
10-year-old is commonly known as a smooth-mouthed horse, i. e., no cups. 
From this on the age is reckoned by the end teeth. As the animal grows 
older the lower teeth become worn in proportion. The corners of the end 
teeth become I'ounded. To tell the age with any degree of accuracy beyond 
13 years requires the examination of many sets of teeth. 



TO TELL THE AGE OF EGGS. 

In a brine cf two ounces of salt and a pint of water a fresh. egg will 
sink to the bottom; older eggs will suspend in the brine, while a stale egg 
will float on the top. Eggs for setting should be tested in this way. 



TO KEEP MILK FROM SOURING. 

Milk may be kept from souring by adding a small quantity of boracic 
acid to the milk. This is not injurious to the health. 



Uncful Recipes for Orchanl. (Inrdcit and Poultry Yard. 415 

UNITED STATES LAND MEASUKE AND HOMESTEAD J.AW. 

A township is 36 sections, each a mile square, A section is 640 acres. 
A quarter section, half a mile square, is 160 acres. An eighth section, half 
a mile long, north and south and a quarter of a mile wide, is 80 acres. A 
sixteenth section, a quarter of a mile square, is 40 acres. • 

The sections are all numbered to to 36, commencing at northeast comer, 
thus : 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


NW NE 


SW SE 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


18 


17 


16* 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



*School Section. 

The sections are all divided in quarters, which are named by the cardinal 
points, as in section 1. The quarters are divided in the same way. The 
description of a forty-acre lot would read : The south half of the west half 
of the southwest quarter of section 1 in township 24, north of range 7 
west, or as the case might be; and sometimes will fall short, and sometimes 
overrun the number of acres it is supposed to contain. 



'4J6 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 

TO TEY LAED. 

Place the scraps in a kettle and cook. For twenty pounds of lard add 
one tablespoon of saleratus ; empty the lard into crocks and the lard will not 
become mouldy. 



TO UTILIZE BONES FOR FERTILIZERS. 

Take one barrel of boneS;, add one peck of ashes and one peck of lime, 
and boil for a few hours, when all the bones will be dissolved; mix with 
other manures. 



NUMBER OF WINDOW LIGHTS PER BOX OF 50 FEET. 

Size. Number. Size. , Number. 

6 by 8 ---150 11 by 12 55 

7 « 9 115 11 " 13 51 

8 « 10....... 90 11 " 14 ir 

8 '' 11 82 11 " 15 44 

8 « 12. 75 11 " 16 _........ 41 

9 « 11 73 11 " 17 39 

9 « 12 67 11 " 18 - 37 

9 <^ 13 „ _ _ 62 11 " 20 3'6 

9 cc 14 57 11 '' 22 _ 30 

9 <' i5_ 53 11 " 24 ~ — 27 

9 « 16 50 12 " 14 43 

9 « 18 45 12 " 15 4(; 

10 « 12, 60 12 " 16 - 38 

10 " 13 55 12 " 17 35 

10 " 14 „._ 52 12 " 18 34 

10 « 15 48 12 " 20 - _.„ 30 

10 « 16 45 12 " 22 27 

10 « 17 „ 43 12 " 24 ™. 25 

10 « 18.„. _ 40 12 " 26 „ 23 

10 « 20 36 12 " 28 _ _ 22 

10 « 22 _ 33 12 " 30 _ 20 

10 « 24 - 30 12 " 32 19 

10 « 26 28 12 " 34 „ 18 

10 « 28 . 26 12 " 36 17 

10 « 30 24 13 " 14 40 



Useful Recipes fur Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 417 

Size Number. Size. dumber 
13 by 15.: 37 15 by 38 13 



13 " 16 

13 " 18 

13 " 20 

13 " 23 

13 " 21 

13 " 26 

13 " 28 

13 " 30.._. 

13 " 32.™. 

14 " 15.-.. 
14 " 16.. 



14 " 34.. 

14 " 36.. 

14 " 38- 

14 " 40.. 

14 " 42.. 

14 " 44.. 



35 15 " 40 - - 1^ 

31 IG " 16 - 38 

28 16 " 18 _ 25 

25 16 " 20 23 

.__._ 23 16 " 22 21 

21 16 " 24 19 

20 16 " 26 _ - 17 

19 16 " 28 ~- ~ 16 

17 16 " 30 _ -- - 15 

„ 34 16 " 32 - - - 14 

_ 32 16 " 34 -• 13 



o 



14 " 17 „ _ 31 16 " 36 1^ 

14 " 18 29 16 " 38 1 

26 16 " 40 11 

24 16 " 42 •• 11 

22 16 " 44 - 10 

20 16 " 46 10 

19 16 " 48 9 

17 16 " 52 - 9 

_ y 

_ 15 16 " 60 5 

14 18 " 20- - 20 

14 18 " 22 — 13 

13 18 " 24 -- - 17 

12 18 " 26 - — 1(5 

12 18 " 28. - - 14 



14 " 20 

14 " 22 

14 " 24 

14 " 26 

14 " 28 .: 

14 " 30 

14 " 32.._ 16 16 " 54. 



14 « 46... - 11 18 " 30 14 

15 « 16 _ - 30 18 " 32 _ 13 

15 « 18 - 27 18 " 34 — - 1- 

15 « 20 - - - - 24 18 " 36 H 

15 « 22.._ -..:-.- - 22 18 " 38 H 

15 « 24 _ ~ 20 18 " 40._ - _ - - 10 

15 '' 26 - 19 18 " 42._ _ - 10 

15 « 28....„ 17 18 " 44 - - - 9 

15 " 30 - - 16 18 " 46 - 9 

15 « 32...- - - - 15 18 " 50._ 8 

15 « 34_ _- 14 18 " 52 8 

15 « 36 13 18 " 56_. . 7 



418 Useful Recipes for Orchard. Garden and Poultry Yard. 

Size. Number, Size. Number. 

18 by 60 7 23; by 24 14 

20 " 22 - KJ 22 " 26 ™. 13 

20 " 24 15 22 " 28 12 

20 " 26 - 14 22 " 30 11 

20 " 28 - 13 22 " 32 10 

20 " 30 „ 12 22 " 34 _..... 10 

20 " 32 11 22 " 36 _ 

20 " 34 11 22 " 38 9 

20 " 36 _ 10 22 " 40 „ S 

20 " 38 10 22 " 42 8 

20 " 40 9 52 " 44 _. 7 

20 " 42 _ 9 22 " 48 7 

20 " 44 8 22 " 50 7 

20 " 46 „ 8 22 " 52 _ _ G 

20 " 48 8 22 " 56 6 

20 " 50 7 22 " 60 5 

20 " 54 _. 7 24 " 24 13 

20 " 58 6 24 " 26 12 

20 " 64 6 



HOW TO WEIGH WITHOUT SCALES 

To weigii without scales remember that ten eggs weight one pound; 
soft butter the size of an egg weighs one ounce; one pint A sugar weighs 
tweJve ounces; one quart flour weighs one pound; one pint brown sugar 
weighs thirteen ounces; two teacups (level) granulated sugar weigh one 
pound; two teacups (well heaped) A sugar weigh one pound; two teacups 
soft butter weigh one pound; one pint liquor weigh one pound; one pint 
chopped meat weighs one pound. 



TO MAKE A CEMENT HOUSE. 

One of the most useful houses I have seen lately is one constructed from 
top to bottom from gravel and cement. It is eight by ten feet on the 
insidO;, with a ten-foot ceiling. The floor is cemented and is four feet 
below the centei of the earth. The walls of the building are a foot thick, 
with nearly two inches of air space running along the center of tliem. 



Useful liCcipcs for Orchard, (lardcn and I'oullri/ Yard. 419 

It was constructed in the following manner: After the excavation was 
made 2x4 oak pieces were set to each side and the ends so that when the 
boards were nailed to them space was formed for the bottom layer of ce- 
ment. When this was put in planks were nailed above these for another 
course. This plan was followed until the building was the desired height. 
Then an oval roof was constructed from oak boards with circular rafter^ 
resting in the top layer of cement. On this at the proper time was placed 
a cement roof. The roof rested on the frame work until dry, then the 
frame work was permitted to remain to strenghten the roof. The door 
facing is held by bolts laid in cement and projecting through its sides. 
The doors when hung will be double on the outside, packed in between 
with sawdust. The inner door will be light. The house will be fitted up 
with a stove and grates and used for a fruit dryer in the fall. In the 
winter it will be used to store fruit and vegetables in. There is no drain, 
but a large done jar was set in the cement in one corner of the building 
and the floor made to incline toward it. 



HOW DEEP IN THE GEOUND TO PLANT CORN. 

The following is the result of an experiment with Indian corn. That 
which was planted at the depth of ! 

One inch, came up Si-^ days 

One and one-half inch, came up in 9% days 

Two inches, came up in 10 days 

Two and one-half inches, came up in ll^li day< 

Three inches, came up in 13 days 

Three and one-half inches, came up in 13 days 

Four inches, came up in 1 314 days 

The more shallow the seed was covered with earth, the more rapidly the 
sprout made its appearance, and the stronger afterwards was the stalk. 
The deeper the seed lay, the longer it remained before it came to the sur- 
face. Four inches was too deep for the maize, and must, therefore, be too 
deep for smaller kernels. 



TO SELECT COW. 

1st. A cow must be young. She is in her prime 4 to 6 years, aud the 
best paying time to buy is just after the second or third calf. 



430 Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Pcndtry Yard. 

2nd. Prominence and fulness of milk veins, and velvety softness of 
skin. The milk veins run down on either side of the animal towards the 
udder, and are easily perceptible to the eye, or can be readily found by 
pressure of the hand, if the animal is not over fat. The skin should be 
soft and mellow, not hard and rough. 

3rd. Must liave good shape, fullness, softness, well spread out, perfect 
number of teats, or milk will be scarce; quiet, and of a good disposition; 
this will exhibit itself in her eyes, which must be mild and clear. A cow 
that is quiet and contented feeds at ease, chews her cud with entire satis- 
faction, thereby yielding a greater amount of milk than a restless or tur- 
bulent animal. 



TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF GAEDEN SEEDS RE- 
QUIEED TO PLANT A GIVEN SPACE. 

Designation. 
Asparagus 1 oz. produces 1000 plants, and requires a bed 12 

feet square. 

Asparagus Roots 1000 plant, a bed 4 feet wide, 225 feet long. 

English Dwarf Beans... 1 quart plants from 100 to 150 feet of row. 
French Dwarf Beans....l quart plants 250 or 350 feet of row. 

Beans, Pole, large 1 quart plants 100 hills. 

Beans, Pole, small 1 quart plants 300 hills, or 250 feet of row. 

Beets 10 lbs. to the acre; 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 

Broccoli and Kale 1 oz. plants 2500 plants, and requires 40 square feet 

of ground. 
Cabbage Early sorts same as broccoli, and require 60 square 

feet of ground. 

Cauliflower. The same as cabbage. 

Carrot 1 oz. to 150 feet of row. 

Celery 1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and requires 8 square feet of 

ground. 

Cucumber 1 oz. for 150 hills. 

Cress 1 oz. sows a bed 16 feet square. 

Egg Plant 1 oz. gives 2000 plants. 

Endive 1 oz. gives 3000 plants and requires 80 feet of ground. 

Leek I oz. gives 2000 plants and requires 60 feet of ground. 

Lettuce 1 oz. gives 7000 plants and requires -eed bed of 120 

feet. 
Melon 1 oz. for 120 hills. 



Useful Recipes for Orchard, Garden and Poultry Yard. 421 

Nasturtium 1 oz. sows 25 feet of row. 

Onion 1 oz. sows 200 feet of row. 

Okra 1 oz. sows 2000 feet of row. 

Parsley 1 oz. sows 2000 feet of row. 

Parsnip 1 oz. sows 250 feet of row. 

Peppers 1 oz. gives 2500 feet of row. 

Peas 1 qt. sows 120 feet of row. 

Pumpkin 1 oz. to 50 hills. 

Radish 1 oz. to 100 feet. 

Salsify 1 oz to 150 feet of row. 

Spinach 1 oz. to 200 > feet of row. 

Squash 1 oz. to 75 hills. 

Tomato 1 oz. gives 2500 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet. 

Turnip 1 oz. to 2000 feet. 

Watermelon 1 oz. to 50 hills. 

[the end.] 



INDEX BY PARTS. 



Author's Portrait OPP- ^'^'^ 

Dedication 

Preface -^ 

PART I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Account, Joint 3° 

Advance on Consignment 30 

Advantage of Shipping Only the Best -i- 22 

Apples, Grades of 3/ 

Beans, Grades of 3° 

Boxes, Crates or Hampers to Use for Vegetables 24, 26 

Boxes, Crates or Hampers to Use for Fruits 27 

Brokerage Rules 37 

Cabbage. Grades of 3° 

Cantaloupes, Grades of ... 3o 

Carelessness of Shippers ^4 

Carload, Quantity of Produce Required to Make 33 

Carloads. Time Required to Reach Markets 35 

Carlots, Number of Acres to Plant to Secure Daily 32, 34 

Cars, To Ice •. 34 

Consignment, Advance On -, 3" 

Crops, Rotation of 1.5, 16 

Cucumbers. Grades of 3^ 

Directions for Packing 20, 22 

Dockage 36, 37 

Estimated Weights of Fruits 29, 30 

Estimated Weights of Vegetables 30, 31 

Express, How to Ship by 28, 29 

Express Overcharges. How to Collect 29 

Express Shipments, To Ice 35 

Fertilizers 9-ii 

F. O. B. Sales 36 

Forcing Plants and Fruits to Maturity I4, I5 

Freight, How to Ship by 32 

Fruit and Truck Gardens in the South 7. 8 

Fruit and Vegetable Garden, Selection of Locality for 8 

Fruits and Vegetables, Harvesting and Picking Properly 16-20 

Fruits and Vegetables, Packing for Market 20 

Fruits, Estimated Weights of 29, 30 



424 Index hy Parts. 

Fruits, Grades of 37-41 

Fruits, Harvesting and Picking 19, 20 

Fruit Shipments, Boxes, Crates or Hampers to Use 27 

Gardens in the South, Fruit and Truck 7, 8 

Grades of Potatoes to Ship 37 

Grades of Fruits and Vegetables 37-41 

Apples 37 

Beans 38 

Cabbage 38 

Cantaloupes 38 

Cucumbers 38 

Grapes 39 

Hay and Straw 40, 41 

Onions 38 

Oranges 39 

Peaches (Michigan) 38, 39 

Peaches (Texas and Arkansas) 39 

Pears 39 

Pecans 39 

Plums 39 

Potatoes 38 

Strawberries 39, 40 

Tomatoes 39 

Harvesting and Picking Fruits and Vegetables Properly 16-20 

Harvesting and Picking Fruits 19, 20 

Harvesting and Picking Vegetables 17, IQ 

Hay and Straw, Grades of 40, 41 

How Many Acres to Plant to Secure Carlots Daily 33, 34 

How Plants Grow 11-13 

How to Collect Overcharges from Express Companies 29 

How to Make and Construct Packages for Shipments 27, 28 

How to Ship by Express 28, 29 

How to Ship by Freight 3.:; 

Ice Cars, To 34 

Ice Express Shipments 35 

Insects 13, 14 

Joint Account 36 

Locality for a Fruit and Vegetable Garden, Selection of 8 

Mail, Telegraph and Telephone for Market Quotations and Shipping, Use of. .35, 36 

Market Quotations, etc.. Use of Mail, Telegraph and Telephone for 35, 36 

Markets, Shipping to 22, 23 

Marking Shipments Plainly 23, 24 

Maturing, Forcing Plants and Fruits to 14, 15 

Onions, Grades of " 3S 

Oranges, Grades of 39 

Overcharges, Express, How to Collect 29 

Packages for Shipments, How to Make and Construct 27, 28 

Packing, Directions for 20, 



00 



Index by Parts. 425 

Packing Fruits and Vegetables for Market 20 

Payment for Telegrams 3" 

Peaches (Michigan), Grades of 38, 39 

Peaches (Texas and Arkansas), Grades of 39 

Pears, Grades of ^'^ 

Pecans, Grades of "^9 

Plants and Fruits, Forcing to Maturity 14, 1 5 

Plants Grow, How i i-i3 

Plums, Grades of -^^ 

Potatoes, Grades of ^°' 

Potatoes, Grades to Ship 37 

Quantity of Produce Required to Make a Carload 33 

Rotation of Crops I5> i" 

Rules and Grades, Shipping 36, 37 

Ru'c^, Brokerage 37 



Sales F. O. B. 



3.6 



Seed Sowing ^3 

Selection of Soils 9 

Selection of Locality for a Fruit and Vegetable Garden ^ 

Shipments, Marking Plainly -3, 24 

Shippers, Carelessness of 24 

Shipping Only the Best, Advantage of 21, 22 

Shipping Rules and Grades 36, 37 

Shipping to Markets 22, 23 

Soils, Selection of 9 

Strawberries, Grades of 39, 40 

Telegrams, Payment for 36 

Time Required by Carloads to Reach Markets 35 

Tomatoes, Grades of 39 

Vegetables, Estimated Weights of 30, 3i 

Vegetables, Grades of 37-4^ 

Vegetables, Harvesting and Picking 17-19 

Vegetable Shipments, Boxes. Crates or Hampers to Use 24-26 

PART n. 

VEGETABLES. 

Asparagus, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 45,47 

Cultivation and Planting • • 46 

Fertilizers 47 

Harvesting 47 

Packing and Shipping 47 

Permanent Bed, To Make 46 

Soil 46 

Beans (String), How to Grow, Pack and Ship for Profit 47-50 

Cultivation 49 

Fertilizers 49 



4:2Vi Index by Parts. 

Harvesting 19 

Packing 4Q 

Planting 49 

Seed 48 

Soil 48 

Shipping 49, .SO 

Beans (Pole), How to Grow, Pack and Ship. 50-52 

Cultivation 51 

Harvesting 51 

Markets 51 

Packing 51 

Seed 5 1 

Soil 51 

Staking 52 

Beets, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 52, S3 

Harvesting and Packing 53 

Planting : 53 

Seeds 53 

Soil 53 

Cabbage as a Fall and Winter Crop 54-57 

As an Early Vegetable Crop 56 

Cold PVame, How to Make and Operate 57 

Cultivation 55 

Fertilizers 55, S6 

For Fall Planting 54, 55 

How to Grow and Market 54 

Marketing ■ . . . 56 

Seeds 55 

Soil 55 

Transplanting 55 

Cantaloupes, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 76-79 

Fertilizers 77 

Planting yy 

Picking and Packing 77-79 

Soil y- 

Carrots, How to Grow, Pack and .Ship 57-59 

Cultivation 58 

Fertilizer 58 

Harvesting ' 58, 59 

Seeds ....." c.S 

Soil 58 

Cassava 59, 60 

Planting 59, 60 

Soils C59 

Cauliflower. Growing for Profit in the South 60, 61 

Planting 61 

Seed Beds 61 

Seeds 60, 61 



Index by Farts. 427 

Celery, How to Grow, Pack ami Ship 61-64 

Fertilizers 62 

Harvesting and Packing 63, 64 

Plants, H ow to Grow 63 

Seed 62 

Soils 62 

Collards, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 66, 67 

Harvesting 67 

Planting 67 

Corn. (Sweet). How to Plant, Harvest and Ship 67-69 

Harvesting 68 

Planting 68 

Seeds 68 

Shipping 6f) 

Soil 68 

Cucumbers, How to Grow, Pack and Ship for Profit 64-66 

Egg Plants, How to Grow, Pack and Ship : ... .69. 70 

Fertilizers 70 

Planting 7'^ 

Seeds 69, 70 

Shipping 70 

Soils 6y 

Sowing 70 

•Garden, The Southern Vegetable 43 

Garlic, How to Grow, Harvest and Ship 71-73 

Fertilizers 72 

Harvesting 73 

Insects •. y2 

Planting 72 

Sets 72 

Soil 72 

Horse Radish. Plow to Grow and Ship 73. 74 

Fertilizers 73 

Harvesting 73, 74 

Planting 73 

Soil 73 

How to Grow and Harvest Sweet Potatoes 103, 104 

How to Grow and Market Cabbage 54-57 

How to Grow and Market Squash 1 1 1, 112 

How to Grow and Ship Horse Radish 73. 74 

How to Grow and Ship Mustard 84, 85 

How to Grow and Ship Rhubarb 107, 108 

How to Grow and Ship Watermelons 79-8i 

How to Grow, Cultivate, Harvest and Ship Irish Potatoes 98-103 

How to Grow, Harvest and Ship Garlic 71-73 

How to Grow Mushrooms 82-8 < 

How to Grow Onion Sets g2 



428 I Index by Parts. 

How to Grow, Pack and Ship: 

Asparagus 45-47 

Beets ; 52-53 

Cantaloupes 76-79 

Carrots 57-59 

Celery 61-64 

CoUards 66, 67 

Cucumbers 64, 66 

Egg Plants 69, 70 

Lettuce 75, 76 

Onions 87-92 

Parsley 92, 93 

Pole Beans SO-52 

Spinach no, iii 

String Beans 47-SO 

Tomatoes 1 12-1 14 

Turnips or Rutabagas 108-110 

How to Grow Peppers 96-98 

How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States 114-121 

How to Plant English Peas 94-96 

How to Plant, Harvest and Ship Sweet Corn 67-69 

How to Plant, Pack and Ship Okra 85-87 

Kohlrabi 7o, 71 

Leek y^ 

Lettuce, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 75, 76 

Fertilizing 75 

Packing 76 

Planting 75, 76 

Seeds 76 

Soil • 75 

Mushrooms, How to Grow for Profit 82-84 

Harvesting and Yield 84 

Planting the Spawn 84 

Preparation for the Bed 83, 84 

Soil 83 

Mustard, How to Grow and Ship 84, 85 

Planting 85 

Seeds 85 

Shipping , 85 

Soil 8s 

Okra, How to Plant, Pack and Ship 85-87 

Picking and Packing 87 

Planting 86, 87 

Seeds 86 

Soil 86 

Onion Sets, How to Grow g2 



Index by Parts. 429 

Onions (Bermuda), How to Grow, Pack and Ship 87-90 

Harvesting 89 

Packing go 

Seed Bed 89 

Seeds 88 

Soil 88, 8q 

Transplanting 89 

Yield Per Acre 89, 90 

Onions (Creole), How to Grow, Pack and Ship 90-92 

Fertilizer? 91 

Harvesting and Shipping 91 

Planting 91 

Seed 91 

Soil gi 

Parsley, How to Grow, Pack and Ship ! 92, 93 

Packing and Shipping 93 

Planting 93 

Seeds 93 

Soil 93 

Parsnips, Culture and Shipping 93, 94 

Culture 94 

Harvesting 94 

Packing 94 

Shipping 94 

Peas, English, How to Plant, Grow and Ship .94-96 

Fertilizers 05 

Marketing q6 

Packing 95 

Planting 95 

Seeds 95 

Soils 95 

Peppers, How to Grow. Pack and Ship 96-98 

Marketing 9; 

Seeds 97 

Potatoes ( Irisli ), How to Grow. Cultivate, Harvest and Ship 98-103 

Fall Crop, How to Plant for .■ 10 ' 

Fertilizers c;,;. (,, .. 

House (Potato) utj. r^M 

How to Cut and Use Seed 99 

How to Dig, Assort and Pack 100, io.r 

Insects roo 

Planting ^ gg_ 100 

Seeds * 98, 99 

Soil gS 

Sprouting JOI 

When to Plant loj, 102 

28 



430 I Index by Farts. 

Potatoes (Sweet), How to Grow and Harvest 103, 

Cultivation 

Harvesting 

Planting 

Soil 

Varieties 

Pumpkins, Growing 104, 

Radish Culture 105- 

Fertilizers 

Harvesting • • 

Markets .... 

Packing 

Planting 1 06, 

Seeds 

Rhubarb, How to Grow and Ship 107, 

Southern Vegetable Garden 

Spinach, How to Grow, Pack and Ship no, 

Fertilizers 

Harvesting and Packing 

Planting 

Seeds no. 

Soils 

Squash, How to Grow and Market in, 

Planting and Cultivating 

Seed 

Soil 

Toliacco, How to Grow in the Southern States n4- 

Cultivating 

Cutting 

Labor 120, 

Pests 

Preparing the Soil n6. 

Protecting the Plants 

Quantity of Seed to Sow n4. 

Seed 

Seed Bed 115. 

Sowing- the Seed 

Stripping 

Suckering 

Topping 

Transplanting 

Treating tlic Leaf Before Stripped ng, 

Wrapping » 

Tomatoes, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 112, 

Cultivation i\^. 

Fall Crop 

Fertilizer ^ ' 

Packing 



Index by Paris. -lol 

Plantiiiti 113 

Soil I !•? 

Sowing Seed 113 

Varieties and Seed 113 

Turnips or Rutal)agas, How to Grow, Pack and Sliip 108. 1 10 

Fertilizers 108 

Packing no 

Planting • • • loS 

Seeds 108. 109 

Soils 108 

Watermelons, 1 low to Grow and Ship 79- 81 

Cultivation 80 

Fertilizers 80 

Green Melons 81 

How to Tell a Ripe ]\Ielon 81 

Loading '. 81 

Markets 81 

Profits 81 

Proximity to Railroads 79 

Seed 70 

Soil 79 

Wliat is TJcst Size to Grow ? 80 

PART HI. 



FRUIT AND NUT CULTURE. 

Apples 126- 

Best Varieties 

Borers, Apple Tree 

Cultivation 

Fertilizers 

How to Pick 127, 

Planting the Orchard 126, 

Scab ■ 

Thinning 

Apricots 134, 

Blackl)erries 149, 

Dewberries 148, 

Fig Culture • 140- 

Ciiltivation 

Fertilizers 

Packing and Shipping 

Planting 

Varieties 141. 

Grapes 142 

Hints. Valuable for the Orchard 157 



432 Index hy Parts. 

Oranges' 138-140 

Budding 140 

Fertilizers I39, MO 

Satsuma Oranges 1 39 

Soil 139. 140 

Orchard, The Home and Commercial 123 

Moisture and Irrigation 125, 126 

Proximity to Markets and Loading Stations 126 

Orchard. Valuable Hints for 157-162 

Fruit in Nooks and Comers 160, 161 

Girdled Trees 159, 160 

Grow from Cuttings 158 

How to Pack Apples 161 

How to Set Fruit Trees 157. 158 

Making Trees Bear 159 

Mice in Orchard 160 

Miscellaneous 162 

Renew the Orchard 158, 150 

Splendid Fruit Rules 161, 162 

Summer Pruning 15S 

Peaches 131-134 

Selection of Orcliard 1 33 

Planting 133 

, Varieties to Plant in tlu .Soutli for Succession 133, 134 

Peanuts 155. 156 

Harvesting 156 

Planting and Cultivation 155, 156 

Soil 15s 

Varieties 155 

Pears 129-131 

Blight 130. 131 

Cultivation 130 

How to Ripen 131 

Planting 130 

Pecans, Planting for Profit 150, 155 

Age of Bearing and Yield 154 

Budding 154. I55 

Cost Per Acre IS I 

Cultivation 1 53 

Cutting the Tap Root 153 

Distance to Plant 1 53 

Fertilizers 153 

Location 152 

Planting 153 

Preparation 152. 153 

Soil r 152 

Trees, Number of 153 

What Crops to Grow 153 



Indr.r hij Paris. 433 

l\r>iiiiiii()ns 136, 138 

Japan PersininiDiis 136, 137 

Picking 138 

Varieties . 138 

Plums 135, 13') 

Strawberries 145-148 

Planting 147, 148 

Picking and Packing 148 

Varieties 146 

\\'alnnts 156. 157 

PART IV. 

SEEDS AND THEIR USES— INSECTS, SPRAYING — WORK FOR THE MONTH IN THE SOTTHERN 
GARDEN — BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 

I'.udding and Grafting 198-20J 

Cold Frame, How to Make and Operate 187-188 

Fruits, Treatment for Diseases and Insects 196-198 

Fungicides 190-193 

Bordeaux Mixture 190, 191 

Combined Insecticides 19.2 

Corrosive Sublimate 192 

Lime, Salt and Sulphur 192 

Hotbed, The '. 1S6, 187 

Insecticides (Formulas) 188, 189 

Kerosene Emulsion 189 

Paris Green 188 

Poison for Biting Insects 189 

White Hellebore 189 

"insects 188 

Raising Vegetables and Shipping, Remarks 184, 185 

Seeds : 

Approximate Time to Germinate 170. 17' 

Best Varieties for Southern Planting 168, 160 

Germinating 167 

Planting 165 

Required to Produce a Given Number of Plants 171 

Selecting Good Seeds 165 

Soaking Before Planting y 166, 167 

Standard Weight of 170 

Testing 166 

To Protect Against Mice and Insects 169 

Usually Sown Upon an Acre 169, 170 

Vitality of 165, 166 

Vegetables, Raising and Shipping 184. 185 

Vegetables. Treatment for Diseases and Insects 193-196 

Work for Different Months in Southern Orchards and Truck Fields 171-181, 



4;U , Index 1)1/ Paris. 

Work for January 1 73, 

Field 1 73, 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for February 1 74, 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for March '75, 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for April 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard , 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for May 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for June 178, 

Field ". 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for July 

Work for August 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for Septemlxr 180, 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard : 

Vegetable Garden 

Work for October i8r. 

Field 

Flower Garden 

Orchard 

Vegetable Garden 181, 

Work for November 182, 

Field ; 



Index by Farts. 435 

Mower Garden 183 

Orchard 183 

Vegetable (jarden 182 

Work for December 183, 184 

Field 184 

Flower Garden 184 

Orchard 184 

Vegetable Garden 183 

PART V. 

IKKICATION, DRAINAGE AND P"ERTIL1ZEK.S. 

Acres Irrigated liy Various Quantities of Water 210 

Application of Water to Growing Crops 211, 212 

Artesian Wells 206 

Centrifugal Pumps 208, 209 

Crops, Application of Water to 211, 212 

Drainage 217-219 

Drainage :' 

Adapts the Soil to Germination 221, 222 

Affects Temperature 222, 22^ 

Assists Pulverization 219 

Effect of 231 

Improves Quality of Crops 223 

Insures Certainty of Crops 232 

Lengthens the Season 219 

Prevents Drought 22^-226 

Prevents Surface Washing 219, 220 

Promotes Absorption 221 

Drainage, Practical Suggestions 232, 233 

Drainage, Tile 219 

Drainage, Tools and Implements 229, 230 

Drained Land is Lighter to Work 220, 221 

Drains, Carrying Capacity , 229 

Drains, Distance and Depth 226-22S 

Drain Tile, Points to Remember in Laying 233, 234 

Fertilizers : 234-241 

Fertilizers and Their Sources 235 

Fertilizers : 

Commercial, How to Use •. 240, 241 

Compost Heap 239, 240 

How to Make Home-made 239 

Lime 237 

Nitrogen 235, 236 

Phosphoric Acid 236 

Potash 236, 237 

Stable Manure _ _ -7,g 



436 Index hy Parts. 

Fertilizers, Valuable Items 241-248 

Commercial, Use on Farm 244, 245 

For Irish Potatoes 241-243 

Lime as a Fertilizer 246-248 

Nitrate of Soda for Potatoes 245, 246 

Testing 243, 244 

Wood Ashes for Fruit Plantations 245 

Fertilizers, What to Use 238 

How to Make Home-made Fertilizers 241 

How to Use Commercial Fertilizers 240, 241 

Irrgated Land, Value of . 215-217 

Irrigate Right 213, 214 

Irrigate, When 212, 213, 216 

Irrigation 205, 206 

Irrigation, Orchard 213 

Irrigation Pointers 214, 215 

Irrigation, Profits of 215 

Irrigation, Water Supply for ; 20^ 

Orchard Irrigation 213 

Points to Reniemher When Laying Drain Tile 233, 234 

Practical Suggestions on Drainage 232, 233 

Profits of Irrigation 215 

Pumps, Centrifugal 208, 20.-5 

Reservoirs 211 

Tile Draining 219 

Tiling, Cost Per Acre 234 

Value of an Irrigated Acre . . . 215-217 

Water, Application to Growing Crops 211, 212 

Water, Quantity Used for irrigation 210 

Water Supply for Irrigation 206 

Well, a Cheap Driven 211 

Wells, Artesian 206, 207 

Well Sinking 206 

When to Irrigate 212, 213 

Windmills 207. 208 

PART VI. 

BENEFITS OF ORGANIZATION AMONG FRUIT AND TRUCK GROWERS AND POULTRY RAISERS 

IN THE SOUTH. 

Benefits of Organization Among Fruit and Truck Growers 251-254 

Constitution and By-Laws of a Truck Growers' Association.... 255-258 

By-Laws 257, 258 

Constitution 255-257 

Order of Business 257 

Preamble . 255 

Fruit and Truck Growers Association. How to Organize 254 



Index hii Palis. -^'^" 

Meetings of Fruit and Truck Growers, To Hold ^ ,2/0 

A Few Live Questions for Debate ^^^ 

Rules of Meetings 

Organization Among Fruit and Truck Growers. Benefits of • • • ■ • •^5^-2o4 

Parliamentary Law : ^_g ^-q 

Adjournment ' 2-9 

Amendments ,,. ^60 

Amendment to Amendment '^ ' ^^ 

Chairman's Decision ^^ 

Commitment ^g^^ 262 

Committee of the Whole ^'261 

Committees • .262', 263 

Debate 26- 

Definite Postponement " 

Division of a Question ^^ 

Duties of Officers ^^^ 

Indefinite Postponement ^^^ 

Lay on the Table ■ • • • : .'.'.'.' '.'.'.'.'.'.'263, 264 

Motion 269 

Motion to Substitute ^^^ 

Order of Business ^'^ ' ^^^ 

Orders of the Day " " ^^^ 

Precedence of Questions ^^ 

Previous Questions ^g 

Privileged Questions ^66 267 

Postponement ^^^ ^gg 

Questions of Order ^^^ ^^ 

Quorum . 266 

Reading of Papers ^gg 



Recommit 



26S 



Reconsideration 260 

Speaking 268 

Suspension of Rules '^^_ ^^ 

Taking the Question " ^' ~^^ 

To Commit 260 

Withdrawal of a Motion ^^ 

Yeas and Nays • • • V-- 2c8 

Truck Growers ,\ssociation. Constitution and By-Laws of -■^:> ^^ 

PART VTT. 

CANNING FRVITS ANP VEGETABLES. EVAPOKATINC FRriTS. PICKLE FACTORY. EHm-M FAC- 
TORY AND BROOM CORN CULTURE, FACTORIES ON THE FARM. LEGUMINOUS 
AND FORAGE CROPS. 

298-301 

Alfalfa 299 

Soils for Growing ' _^ 

Some Alfalfa Don'ts 



438 ' Judex hij Parts. 

Value of 300. 30r 

When to Sow 300 

Apparatus, Evaporating, Type of 285 

Broom Corn Culture 288 

Broom Corn, Planting 288-290 

Broom Factory * 29a 

Broom Factor\^ Proper Locality for Starting 290, 291 

Canned Goods, Market for 28f 

Canning, Cost of 274 

Canning Factory, How to Establish 274 

Canning Fruits and Vegetables ■ 273 

Canning, Home 274 

Canning, Important Things to Be Remembered 283, 284 

Canning, Plants for 274, 276 

Canning, Profits of 273, 274 

Canning, Receipts, Miscellaneous 282 

Canning Without Cooking 282, 283 

Cans, Manufacture of 276 

Capping Solder 280 

Chow-Chow 287 

Cost of Canning 274 

Cow-Peas for Profit 296 

Crate Factories, Fruit and Vegetable 301, 302 

Crops, Forage 293 

Kaffir Corn 294, 295 

Peanuts 293, 294 

Crops, Leguminous 292, 293 

Dill Pickles 287 

Evaporating Apparatus, Types of 285 

Evaporating or Drying of Fruits and Vegetables 284 

Ev.iporation, Types and Modes of 284 

Figs, to Preserve 282 

Fruits, How^ to Can 277, 278 

Fruits, Varieties to Can 281 

Home Canning 274 

Home Made Pickles 288 

How to Can Fruits 277, 27S 

Apples 277 

Apricots 2J~ 

Blackberries 277 

Cherries 277 

Currants 277 

Grapes 277 

Peaches 278 

Pears 278 

Pineapples 278 

Plums , 278 

Strawberries .,.•. ..;..-. 278 



Index b,j rarts. 439 

278. 280 

1 low to Can Ve!j;ctal)k's 

„ . -/f>i -/y 

Beans ( String ) ^„ 

Bt-ans ( Lima ) ,_^ 

Corn ( Swct't) 

-/9 

^*^'"'' 279 

Okra and 1 oniatoes 

2/9 

P-- -. ••■• ::: 279 

Pumpkins ,,gQ 

■ Squash _,gQ 

Succotash ,gQ 

Potatoes ( Sweet ) ^^..^ 

Tomatoes 274 

How to EstaliHsli a Canning Factory JJ^' ^__^ 

Lahels ^g^, 293 

Leguminous Crops ,^ 

Manufacture of Cans ^g^ 

Market for Canned Goods ■ ^g^^ 

Packages Used for Canned Fruits . . .297. 298 

Para Grass ,g5^ ^g-, 

Pickle Factories, Estahlishmg _^_^^' ^^^ 

Pickle Recipes ... 291 

Artichoke ,g^ 

Beets 292 

German 292 

^lixed ''''"''' 291 

Onions 291, 292 

Peaches ^g_. 



Spanish ( Sweet) ,^2 

'r,^,nnfr..ac nnd Onions 

292 



Tomato ( Green ) ^^ ^ 

Tomato ( Ripe ) 291 

Tomato ( Sweet) ^g_ 

Pickles, Chow-Chow ^88 

Pickles, Cucumber ^g^ 

Pickles. Dill ^gg 

Pickles for Family Use. Home Made 285, 286 

Preparing Fruits for Drying • • ' ' ■^_.^' ^^^ 

Protits of Canning ' ' ^g^ 

Solder. Capping ^^g 

Soy Beans, Feeding Value of •••302, 303 

Tanning 281 

Varieties of Fruits to Can . . .281. 282 

Varieties of Vegetables to Can ^_^g' ^^^ 

Vegetables, How to Can • ' " ' '^g^' ^^^ 

Vegetables, Varieties to Can ~ 



440 ^ Index by Parts. 

PART VIII. 

POULTRY IN AN EGGSHELL. 

Bantams, Profit in 352 

Barred Plymouth Rocks : 313 

Black Spanish, White Faced 324 

Brahma, Light '. 309 

Brooding, Natural 346 

Brown Leghorns, Rose Comb 312 

Brown Leghorns, Single Comb 311 

Buff Cochins 310 

Buff Orpingtons 318 

Buff Plymouth Rocks 315 

Buff Wyandottes 321 

Chicken Experiences 309, 310 

Chicken Mites .356 

Chickens, Milk 334 

Chickens, Plant Mulberries for 351 

Chicks, Feeding : ; . . . .344, 346 

Chicks, Green Stuff for 339 

Chicks, Keep Growing 343. 344 

Clover for Chicks ■ 32 1 . ^22 

Cochins, Buff 310 

Cull Out Hens 349 

Directions for Packing Eggs 356, Ti^~ 

Disease, Signs of 355 

Diseases of Poultry and Remedies 357-360 

Bowel Troubles 358. 359 

Catarrh ' 357. 358 

Cholera 360 

Eggbound - 355 

Indigestion ' '. 358 

Limberneck 360 

Roup 357 

Scaly Legs . ,359 

Sore Head in Chicks 358 

Dressing Poultry 353 

Ducks 335 

Dust Bath, The 339 

Egg Laying, To Increase - '. . . .^40. ,341 

Eggs, Directions for Packing 356, 357 

Eggs for Hatching. Cheap 347- 34"^ 

Eggs, Preserving 3^7- 33^ 

Feeding for Size 324 

Feeding Little Chicks 344-346 

Feeds, Condimental 323 

Fruit and Poultry _. 3I3-3I.t 

Fruit Trees and Poultry 35i, 35i- 

Geese for Market 35^. 3^3 



Index by Parts. 441 

Geese. Toulouse 336 

Golden Wyandottes . .319, 320 

Green Food for Poultry 311, 312 

Green Stuff for Chicks 339 

Guinea Fowl ;i3i, 334 

Health and Disease, Signs of 355 

Hen, Laying Ration for 350 

Incubator, Starting 339 

Increase Egg Laj'ing 341, 342 

Keep Chicks Growing 343, 344 

Layers, N•^xt Winter 336, 337 

Leghorns, Brown, Rose Com!) 312 

Leghorns, Brown, Single Comb 311 

Leghorns, Rose Comb White ;i27 

Leghorns, Single Comb 317 

Marking Young Chickens 312, 313 

Meat for Fowls 348. 349 

Minorcas 316 

Mites, Chicken 356 

Natural Brooding 346 

Next Winter's Layers ^-iiS, ^37 

Orpingtons, Buff 318 

Plant Mulberries for Chickens 351 

Plum Trees in Poultry Yard 346, 347 

Plymouth Rocks, Barred 313 

Plymoutli Rocks, Buff 315 

Poultry, Dressing 353 

PouItr_v, Farming 307, 308 

Poultry, Green Food for 311, 312 

Poultry, How to Dress and Ship 341-343 

Capons 343 

Chickens 341, 342 

Ducks 342, 343 

<^eese 342, 343 

Turkeys 342 

Poultry Information '. 361-365 

Hatching Chicks 361 

How to Dress and Prepare a Chicken for the Table 364 

How to Raise Young Chicks 362-364 

Incubation 365 

Incubators 36^^ 

Incubators, Notes on 36^ 

Number of Females to One Male 361 

Teaching Chicks to Roost 361 

Time for Hatching Eggs 362 

Water-Glass 361, 362 

Poultry Points 3:^3-3:51^ 

Poultry Raising and Egg Production 308 

Poultry Yard, The 307 



442 ' Index hy Parts. 

Preserving Eggs 3^7, 338 

Profit in Bantams 352 

Raising Young Turkeys 330, 331 

Ration for a Laying Hen 350 

Rhode Island Reds 3^5-327 

Rhode i'shind Reds, Rose Comb 320 

Rose Comb White Leghorns 3^7 

Silver Laced Wyandottes 314 

Single Comb Leghorns 3^7 

Standard Breeds 309 

Test Age of Fowls 317. 3i8 

Turkeys 33 1 . 33- 

Turkeys and Their Nests 332, 333 

Turkeys. Mammoth Bronze 3~^ 

Turkeys. Profitable 32S-330 

Turkeys, Raising Young 330, 33i 

White Faced Black Spanish 324 

White Wyandottes 3^2, 323 

Wyandottes, Buff 321 

Wyandottes, Golden 319. 320 

Wyandottes, Silver Laced 314 

Wyandottes, White 322, 323 

PART TX. 

FROdS I'OK PROFIT — DAIRYING, BEE-KEEPING AND MISCELI.ANEOU.S. 

Apiary, Profits from 3^3 

Basket Willow Growing 390-39^ 

Bee-Keeping 382-383 

Bees. Robber 389. 390 

Bees, What Race to Choose 383-386 

Butter Making 381 

Butter, Packing 382 

Care of the Dairy Cow 376. 377 

Cow, An Ideal Dairy 375- 37<^ 

Cow, Dairy, Care of 376. 377 

Cow, Dairy, Feeding 377-379 

Cows,. The Best Dairy ". 374. 375 

Dairying and Butter Making . .373- 374 

Dairy. To Start a 380 

Feeding the Dairy Cow 377-37Q 

I'Vogs as a Source of Profit 369. 37" 

I<"rogs, Flunting 370, 37 1 

I'Vogs, Propagating 37^ 

Frogs, Shipping 37^ 

Hives, What to Use 386. 387 

Insects and Other Enemies of Bees ,388, 389 

INlilking : 380, 381 



Index by Parts. 443 

Swarming, Management In 387, 388 

Willow Growing, Basket 390, 39 : 

Wine Making in the South 3/1-373 

PART X. 

I'SKFUL RECirES AND INFORMATION FOR FARM, ORCHARD AND CAKDEN. 

Age of a Horse, To Tell 414 

Age of Eggs, To Tell 414 

Ages of Animals 395 

Antidotes for Poisons 395, 39O 

Ants, To Destroy 39^ 

Army Worms 407 

Annual Rainfall in the United States 396, 397 

Barbed Wire Required for Fences, Amount 397 

Bermuda or Other Grasses, To Kill 412 

Bites and Stings of Insects 398 

Bleeding, To Arrest 410 

Blindness of Poultry, Remedy for 39S 

Bones, To Use for Fertilizers 416 

Brick, Number Required to Construct Any Building 399 

Bug Poison 399 

Burns, Remedies for 410 

Business Laws in Brief 400 

Butter, Preserving 409 

Butter, Renovating 410 

Cabbage, To Keep 400, 401 

Camphor a Cure for Cholera 401, 402 

Caterpillars, H ow to Destroy 402 

Cattle Food to Tone Up System 402, 403 

Cement House. How to Make ■ 418, 419 

Cements 403 

I'\)r Drainage 403 

For Glass 403 

For Leather 403 

For Stoves 403 

1 ron 403 

Cheese Making 408 

Cloth, To Make Waterproof 412 

Cockroaches, To Destroy 410 

Composition Waterproof for Boots 404 

Corn, How Deep to Plant 419 

Corn, To Measure in the Crib 405 

Cow, To Select 419. 420 

Cresoting Fence Posts and Grape Trellises 405 

Eggs, How to Preserve 407, 408 

Eggs. To Tell Age of 414 

Estimating Measures 405 



444 I Index by Parts. 



Fences, Amount of Barbed Wire Required for 397 

Fireproof Paint 406 

Flies, To Drive from Stable 406 

■ Frost, Protection Against 409 

Garden Seeds, Quantity to Plant _|20, 421 

Gnats 413 

Grafting Wax 406 

Grain, To Measure in the Granary 405 

Gravel Walks 412 

Haystack, How to Weigh 407 

Hens, How to Make Lay in Winter 406, 407 

Hens, To Prevent from Sitting 407 

Honey, To Purify 413 

Horse, To Tell Age of 414 

How to Destroy Caterpillars 402 

How to Make a Cement House 418, 419 

How to Preserve Eggs 407, 408 

How to Weigh a Haystack 407 

How to Weigh Without Scales 418 

Land Measure ( United States ) and Homestead Law 415 

Lard, To Try 416 

Lime Water 408 

Lumber, To Preserve 413 

Measures, Estimating 405 

Mildewing, To Keep P'rom ^. 412 

Milk, To Keep from Souring 414 

Number of Bushels in Bin or Box 396 

Paint, Fireproof 406 

Pickle, to Keef Beef, Tongue or Pork 408 

Plants, To Preserve 413 

Poison, Bug 399 

Poultry Food to Make Hens Lay 409 

Poultry, Size of Eggs 409 

Preserving Butter 409 

Protection Against Frost 409 

Putty for Hotbed Sashes 410 

Rainfall, Average, in the United States 396, 397 

Rats, To Destroy 410, 411 

Remedies for Scalds and Burns 410 

Renovating Butter 410 

Ropes, To Preserve 413 

Rust, To Prevent 413 

Scalds, Remedies for 410 

Square Rods and Feet in One Acre 395 

Stumps, To Destroy 412 

To Arrest Bleeding 410 

To Destroy Ants 398 

To Destroy Cockroaches 410 

To Destroy .Rats 410, 411 



7 1 



Index hy Paris. 445 

To Destroy Stumps 412 

To Keep Milk from Souring 414 

To Kill Bermuda or Other Grasses 412 

To Preserve Lumber 413 

To Preserve Plants 413 

To Preserve Ropes 413 

To Prevent Rust 413 

To Purify Honey '413 

To Select Cow 419, 420 

To Try Lard 416 

To Utilize Bones for Fertilizers 416 

United States Land Measure and Homestead Law 415 

Vegetable Time Table — Length of Time Required to Cook Garden Vegetables.. 404 

Walks, Gravel 412 

Wax, Grafting 406 

Weigh Without Scales, How to 418 

Whitewash 407 

Window Lights, Number Per Box of 50 Feet 416-418 



29 



v.WV-1 *^-vi 3:^jbrt\ 



:.. ■. . «qrnuic' V..--1. ;:>'.( m'* 

^i-. ... ti;u'.:'.;3 moir jiillA qp-vi o'i" 

iCi. . . . i-.-yKiiniJ ■■v;t:0 'lo LiJU'-maH liiii o t" 

f_ii. . i:idin;iJL yvijf'.y', I o i' 

f_ii. .. .-•u;.,i\:. ^vtu;;-)';-] oT 

f^:p, . , :::^qo'-! art52->in o'i' 

f . -. . i .:', tirjv:;Tl. uT 

■J^;.:. . , . ^{■)iloLJ \\^\.i'\ O i' 

0-:. . ■ v:o'} !.•:.:: o'i' 

0:., . injiJ YT r o r 

C: . ■■'ly^ittii :^'i "o'^ ?:r>naB ;)5:,!.tU oT 

j;:;. . ■. ..: I-;. /lujmo"; l)i:i, Virjtiii-Jw'i f;nj;. i :r.'.si\.r!, br>iu;i.i 

^. .. , . , -,.■ . ;,■..,, ... : ., : I. :' ;. n ■»:':■ i' fo dJ:^rf;.i- :>i(JK'!.' ;j;: ; !' :^i :;>:::>-'>jV 

'^t,„ , I-;>vSi'..y : • '•.::', J 

CO;. /Ui'^ti-:- ^■'<' 

3:i ■";1 vdii. (K-jIiuS JjnrfjifV/ :i\4i;>\7 

ii,'K.7 j;i:iW 

:■: : .. ;■:;■); • •. : i : •'"' - y'-uuV- ,;i;)r<;' \f!nh:)t\^i 



"■:.. GENERAL iNDExS^r'.;:^ ;:;:::;« 

>a:. - ^ 'C* ••^■•■= '-t^o-H 

TjnrrrTr^r •;.;; (t:ii:;; >J, -".'jiyjjH ,:/^(>:>::H nio-zui 

Account, Joint ,..,...» - ... 3,9 

Acres Irrigated by Various Quantities of Water : . . . , '....,. r2i0 

Advance on Consignment ,'. . --a 39 

r' , ."■ .'"iJ"; . .- ttrr?'; 

Advantage of Shipping Only the Best .,.^^...V^. .,21,22 

Age of a Horse, To Tell .,..,..,,?..?.,... 414 

Kge of Eggs, To Tell '..'....'.,....... 414 

Ages of Animals .,...,. 3^^ 

i^lfelfa .......,.'..'. .-. 298- 3QI 

Annual Rainfall in the United States ,. . .^.'^ . ...' , ... .. .396, 397 

Antidotes for Poisons '. ...'.....:. ....395, 399 

Arits, To Destroy 39$ 

Apiary, Profits from , . 383 

Apparatus, Evaporating 28$ 

Apples . . .V .I........ , .^^. .. ..,.■.■....;.:. .126-129 

Apples, Grades of .";. ..... ... . . . . . . . ...,;. 37 

Application of Water to Growing Crops • -^ii, 212 

Apricots '■■■'■ 134, 135 

Army Worms 407 

Artesian Wells ...•••.... 206 

A'sparagas, How to Grow, Pack and Ship ;.^. .^. . ,r. '..^. . .45-47 

Bantams, Proht in '. . ,.....^.,} . ... . .35^ 

Barbed Wire Required for Fences, Amount ,.. . . . . ..... 397 

Barred Plymouth Rocks 313 

Basket Willow Growing 390, 39: 

feeanS, Grades of 38 

Beans (Pole), How to Grow, Pack and Ship .50-52 

Beans (String), How to Grow, Pack and Ship for Profit , , 47-50 

Bee-Keeping ^,82, 383 

Bees, Robber 389, 390 

Bees, What Race to Choose 383-386 

Beets, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 52, 53 

Benefits of Organization Among Fruit and Truck Growers 251-254 

Bermuda or Other Grasses, To Kill 412 

Bites and Stings of Insects - • . . .' 398 

Blackberries ;,......,..,.. 149, 150 

Black Spanish, White Faced .'. 32.; 

Bleeding, To Arrest 410 

Blindness of Poultry, Remedy for .39S 

Bones, To Use for Fertilizers 416 

Boxes, Crates or FTampers to Use ,24-27 

Brahma. Light 309 

Brick, Number Required to Construct any Building 399 

BroV erage Rules 37 



448 General Index. 

hi joding, Natural 346 

Broom Corn Culture 288 

Broom Corn, Planting 288-290 

Broom Factory 290 

Broom Factory, Proper Locaiiiy for Starting 290, 291 

Brown Leghorns, Rose Comb 312 

Brown Leghorns, Single Comb 311 

Budding and Grafting 198-202 

Buff Cochins 310 

Buff Orpingtons 318 

Bufii Plymouth Rocks 315 

Buff Wyandottes 321 

Bug Poison 399 

Burns, Remedies for 410 

Business Laws in Brief 400 

Butter Making 381 

Butter, Packing ^S^ 

Butter, Preserving 409 

Butter, Renovating 410 

Cabbage as a Fall and Winter Crop 54-57 

Cabbage, Grades of 38 

Cabbage, To Keep 400, 401 

Camphor a Cure for Cholera . 401, 402 

Canned Goods, Market for 281 

Canning, Cost of 274 

Canning Factory." How to Eslalilisli 274 

Canning Fruits and Vegetables 273 

Canning, Home 274 

Canning, Important Things to l)e Remembered 283, 284 

Canning, Plants for 274-276 

Canning, Profits of 273, 274 

Canning Receipts, Miscellaneous 282 

Canning Without Cooking 282, 283 

Cans, Manufacture of 276 

Cantaloupes, Grades of 38 

Cantaloupes, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 76-79 

Capping Solder 280 

Carelessness of Shippers 24 

Care of the Dairy Cow 376, 377 

Carload, Quantity of Produce Required to Make ^^ 

Carloads, Time Required to Reach Markets 35 

Carlots, Number of Acres to Plant to Secure Daily ^S- 34 

Carrots. How to Grow, Pack and Ship 57-59 

Cars, To Ice 34 

Cassava 59, 60 

Caterpillars, How to Destroy 40^ 

Cattle Food to Tone Up System 402, 403 

Cauliflower, Growing for Profit in the South 60, 61 

Celery, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 61-6.1 



i cnient House, 



General Index. "^^'^ 

How to Make • • • •. ■4'^' ^^s) 



Cements 



403 



For Drainage ^ ^ 

For Glass • "^ •' 

For Iron '^^•' 

For Leather ^ -^ 

For Stoves ■* •' 

Centrifugal Pumps 20S, 209 

Cheese Making 400 

Chicken Experiences 3^9' 3 

Chicken Miles -550 

Chickens. Milk ^^4 

Chickens, Plant .Mulberries for ^^^ 

Chicks. Feeding 344. 34^ 

Chiefs. Green Stuff for ^^^ 

Chicks, Keep Growing •^-^•3' -5-1-1 

Chow-Chow " ^ 

Cloth. To Make Waterproof 4^- 

Clover for Chicks ■^-^- ^" 

Cochins, Buff '. ■' 

Cockroaches, To Destroy ; ' ^^"^ 

Cold Frame, How to Make and Operate ■ •■ ^^7- 188 

Collards, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 66, 67 

Composition, Waterproof, for Boots 404 

Consignment, Advance on -^^^ 

Constitution and By-Laws of a Truck Growers' Association 255-25S 

Corn, How Deep to Plant 4I9 

Corn (Sweet), How to Plant, Harvest and Ship 67-69 

Corn, To Measure in the Cril) 405 

Cow, An Ideal Dairy 375- 37^^ 

Cow, Dairy, Care of ■ 376, 377 

Cow, Dairy, Feeding 377-379 

Cow Peas for Protit '. -^6 

Cows, The Best Dairy 374. 375 

Cow, To Select 4i9. 4^^ 

Cost of Canning "''4 

Crate Factories, Fruit and Vegetable 30i, 302 

Creosoting Fence Posts and Grape Trellises 405 

Crops, Application of Water to -^^' ^^~ 

Crops, Forage • ^^ ' 

Crops, Leguminous ^92, 293 

Crops. Rotation of I5- 16 

Cucumbers, Grades of 3" 

Cucumbers, How to Grow, Pack and Ship for Profit 64-66 

Cull Out Hens 349 

Dairying and Butter Making 373, 374 

Dairy, To Start a 38o 

Dewberries 148. I49 

Dill Pickles ^^^ 



■|'5'0 &'eirdfal'-TMe'x. 

^Directions for Paclcing Eggs ';■:*:'.'; . . ; . ."'.'.•.'. .'r'.v:'.';. .356-357 

directions for Packing ...;............■.... .7 .......•..•......'..■;;:... .. . ."• ■io^'2.2 

toisease, Signs of '. '...:.:::::.::.'■.:.:.'... :\,\ 355 

'Diseases of Poultry and Remedies 357-360 

'Dockage 36, 37 

t)rainage ' 21:7-219 

Drainage Adapts the Soil to Germination .';..'.. -221, 222 

Drainage Affects Temperature ...;... .■'.'222, 223 

Drainage Assists Pulveri/.ation 219 

Drainage, Effect of 231 

Drainage Improves Quality of Crops 223 

Drainage Insures Certainty of Crops 23.? 

Drainage Lengthens the Season 219 

Drainage, Practical Suggestions 232, 2St, 

Drainage Prevents Drought 223-226 

Drainage Prevents Surface Washing 219, 220 

Drainage Promotes Absorption 221 

Drainage, Tile 219 

Drainage Tools and Implements 229, 230 

Drained Land is Lighter to Work 220, 22! 

Drains, Carrying Capacity 229 

Drains, Distance and Depth 226, 22S 

Drains, Tile, Points to Remenilier in Laying 233, 234 

Dressing Poultry 353 

Ducks 335 

Dust Bath, The 339 

Egg Laying, To Increase 340, 341 

Egg Plants, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 69, 70 

Eggs, Directions for Pact ing 356, 357 

Eggs for Hatching, Cheap 347, 348 

Eggs. How to Preserve 407, .408 

Eggs, Preserving 337, 338 

Eggs, To Tell Age of 414 

Estimated Weights of P rnits 29-30 

Estimated Weights of Vegetables 30, 31 

Estimating Measures . ■. 405 

Tivaporating Apparatus 285 

Evaporating or Drying of Fruits and Vegetables 284 

Evaporation, Types and Modes of 284 

Express, How to Ship ly 28, 29 

'Express, Overcharges,, How to Collect 29 

Express Shipments, To 1 ce 35 

Feeding for Size, Poultry 32 \ 

Feeding Little Chicks ' 344, 346 

Feeding the Dairy Cow 377-379 

Feeds. Condimental, Poultry 323 

Fences. Amount of Barlied Wire Required for 397 

Fertilizer, Lime as a 246, 248 

Fertilizer, Nitrate of Soda for Potatoes 245, 246 



■&eitiruPTfvSi&. "^'^'^ 



FferfiHfeer, What to Use • • • ■ - "^"f'^^f^^V'''^'*' ■^'" '•''^''^- ;!,v!^ 

Fertilizer, Wood Ashes for Fruit Plantations ; /;Vv:-.''.3.»^V. -.'.■: . .'... ^2^1:5 

F^tilizers : " ,_ . -^ 

Gommercial, How to Use ••"■••• -■'■ ■ ■■■■■ -40, 24'r 

Compost Heap ■ ■ •' • -^39. 240 

How to Make Home-Made '.:''.'.''" ",,^'^ 

■ Lime • • ' • ■ -".^^^ 

Nitrogen ; "35, 23 

Phosphoric Acid ^3 

Potash 236, 237 

Stable Muiuirc ^38 

Fertilizers 9-ii, 234:241 

Fertilizers and Their Sources 235 

Fertilizers, Commercial, Use on Farm 244 

Fertilizers for Irish Potatoes 241, 243 

Fertilizers, Testing -43, 244 

Fertilizers, Valuable Items : 241-248 

Fig Culture • • ^40-142 

„. _ „ . 282 
t igs, To Preserve 

Fireproof Paint • • 4o6 

Flies, To Drive from Stalilc 4o6 

F. O. B. Sales 36 

Forcing Plants and Fruits to Maturity • I4, I5 

Freight, How to Ship l)y ^^ 

Frogs as a Source of Profit 369, 37^ 

Frogs, Hunting 370, 371 

Frogs, Propagating 37^ 

Frogs, Shipping • • • 3/1 

Frost, Protection Against 409 

Fruit and Poultry 3I3-3I5 

F"ruit and Truck Gardens in the South 7, 8 

Fruit and Truck Growers Association, How to Organize 254 

Fruit and Vegetable Garden, Selection of Locality for 8 

Fruits and Vegetables. Harvesting and Picking Properly 16-20 

Fruits and Vegetables, Packing for Market 20 

Fruit Shipments, Boxes, Crates or Hampers to Use for 27 

Fruit Trees and Poultry 35i, 352 

Fruits, Estimated Weights of 29, 30 

Fruits, Grades of 37-41 

Fruits, Harvesting and Picking 19, 20 

Fruits, How to Can 277, 27S 

Fruits, Treatment for Diseases and Insects 196-198 

Fruits, Varieties to Can 281 

Fungicides 190-193 

Bordeaux Mixture 190, 191 

Combined Insecticide 192 

Corrosive Sublimate ■ 192 

Lime, Salt and Sulphur • • 192 

Gardens in the Soutli. Fruit and Truck /■ 8 



452 General Index. 

Garden Seeds, Quantity to Plant .420, 421 

Garden, The Southern Vegetable • 43 

Garlic, How to Grow, Harvest and Ship 71-73 

Geese for Market 352, 353 

Geese, Toulouse 336 

Gnats 413 

Golden Wyandottes 319, 320 

Grades of : 

Apples 37 

Beans , 38 

Cabbage 38 

Cantaloupes 3K 

Cucumbers 38 

Grapes 30 

Hay and Straw 40, 41 

Onions ^8 

Oranges 39 

Peaches 38, 39 

Pears 39 

Pecans 3Q 

Plums 39 

Potatoes 38 

Strawberries 39) 40 

Tomatoes 39 

Grades of Potatoes to Ship 37 

Grafting Wax 406 

Grain, To Measure in the Granary 405 

Grapes '. 142-145 

Gravel Walks 412 

Green Food for Poultry 311,312 

Green Stuff for Chicks 339 

Guinea Fowl 333, 334 

Harvesting and Picking Fruits and Vegetables 16-20 

Hay and Straw, Grades of 40, 41 

Haystack, How to Weigh 407 

Health and Disease, Signs of 355 

Hen, Ration for Laying 350 

Hens, How to Make Lay in Winter 406, 407 

Hens, To Prevent from Sitting 407 

Hints, Valuable for the Orchard 157-162 

Hives, What to Use 386, 387 

Home Canning 274 

Home Made Pickles ■ . 288 

Honey, To Purify 413 

Horse Radish, How to Grow and Ship 73. 74 

Horse, To Tell Age of 414 

Hotbed, The 186, 187 

How Many Acres to Plant to Secure Carlots Daily 33, 34 

How Plants Grow 11-13 



General Index. 4y>i 

How to Can Fruits Jjj, JJ'A 

How to Can Vegetables J78-28.') 

How to Destroy Caterpillars 40J 

How to Establish a Canning Factory 274 

How to Grow and Harvest Sweet Potatoes 103, 104 

How to Grow and Market Cabbage ■ • • 54-57 

How to Grow and Market Squash 11 1, 112 

How to Grow and Ship Horse Radish • • 73. 74 

How to Grow and Ship Mustard 84, 85 

How to Grow and Ship Rhubarb 107, loH 

How to Grow and Ship Watermelons 79f ^' 

How to Grow, Cultivate, Harvest and Ship Irisli Potatoes .98-103 

How to Grow, Harvest and Ship Garlic 71-/3 

How to Grow Mushrooms 82-84 

Flow to Grow Onion Sets 92 

How to Grow. Pack and Ship : 

Asparagus 45-4/ 

Beets 5-2. 53 

Cantaloupes 76-79 

Carrots 57-5^ 

Celery 61-64 

Collards 66, 67 

Cucumbers 64-66 

Egg Plants 69, 70 

Lettuce 75-76 

Onions 87-92 

Parsley 92, 93 

Pole Beans 50-52 

Spinach 1 10. 1 1 [ 

String Beans 47-50 

Tomatoes 1 12-1 14 

Turnips or Rutabagas 108-1 10 

How to Grow Peppers 96-98 

How to Grow Tobacco in the Southern States 114-121 

How to Make a Cement House 418^ 419 

How to Make and Construct Packages for Shipments 27, 28 

How to Make Home-Made Fertilizers 241 

How to Organize a Fruit and Truck Growers' Association 254 

How to Plant English Peas 94-96 

How to Plant, Harvest and Ship Sweet Corn 67-69 

How to Plant, Pack and Ship Okra 85-87 

How to Preserve Eggs 407, 408 

How to Ship by Express 28, 29 

How to Ship by Freight 32 

How to Use Commercial Fertilizers 240, 241 

How to Weigh a Haystack 407 

How to Weigh Without Scales 418 

Ice Cars, To 34 

Ice Express Shipments ;^^ 



•filciiSase Egg Laying . . . . . . . .v.-n J. i .-. . .34r;'''34t 

■Wfeii^lator, Starting :;::.. .vl-'.'. •.■.'•;'/. r.K . . : ' . r'33^ 

■I<rtfeecticides (Formulas) .<;V;-r%'j% ;^^-.-: .'u^ :i .-..■. .i88;<lS0. 

• v^ Kerosene Emulsion '..ii'.:.^^:'. .vJ'iv-./O. '."..'. .•: ;V. .'. .'V. .-v'lSij 

; -^ ; Paris Green ..:..'}/::). .'vV/v/. ! .:OM.'. . . ;v. /•..-. 188 

'■': ;'J*oison for Biting Insects ................ i ;';>;^. I .^. '.".'..... .i:',o. ...; J.'. .;. v 189, 

■ ■ : White Hellebore ■'.■ .vvpd ;',-;:.'.■... . ;>•;. 7^^:. 189 

Insects : , ': . .:: :>}. .'. ; /A . . ■ .-■ ..'..'. .... t*, 14, 188 

Insects and Other Enemies of Bees ....■;. .-. .■ . . . ; . . . . , .388, 389 

Irrigated Land. Value of 215-217 

Irrigate Right 213, 214 

Irrigate, When to 212, 213, 216 

Irrigation 205, 206- 

Irrigation, Orchard 215 

Irrigation Pointers 214, 215 

Irrigation, Profits of 215. 

Irrigation, Water Suppl}- for 206 

Joint Account 36 

Keep Chicks Growing 343, 344 

Kohlrabi 70, 71 

Labels 276, 277 

Land Measure (United States) and Homestead Law 415 

Lard, To Try 416 

Layers, Hens, Next Winter 336, 337 

Leek 74 

Leghorns, Brown, Rose Comb 312 

Leghorns, Brown, Single Comb 311 

Leghorns, Rose Comb White 327 

Leghorns, Single Comb 317 

Leguminous Crops 292, 293 

Lettvice, How to Grow, Pack and Ship • ■ 75, 7^ 

Lime Water 408 

Locality for a Fruit and Vegetable Garden, Selection of 8 

Lumber, To Preserve 413 

Mail, Telegraph and Telephone for Market Quotations and Shipping 35, 36 

Manufacture of Cans 276 

Market for Canned Goods 281 

Market Quotations, L^se of Mail, Telegraph and Telephone for 35. 36 

Markets, Shipping to 22, 23 

Marking Shipments Plainly 23, 24 

Marking Young Chickens 312, 313 

Maturity. Forcing Plants and Fruits to 14, 15 

Measures, Estimating 405 

Meat for Fowls 348, 349 

Meetings of Fruit and Truck Growers, To Hold 269, 270 

Mildewing, To Keep from 412 

Milking 380, 381 

Milk, To Keep from Souring 414 

Minorcas j 316 



^■ites, Chicken :-^:-;'Sf .f;?'. .'.'^/r'vV... 35<J 

Mtishrooms, How to Grow for Profit ♦ ::.... J'.'.\ ."'. . .82-8^^ 

Mustard, How to Grow and Ship ..••'■ '•.•'■ -84. ^5 

Natural Brooding '. ;':';■''....';/;. . . . 346 

Next Winter's Layers • ■•'• - ■ '■'■ ■ ■'■ • ■ ■ ■33(>> 337 

Number of Bushels in Bin or Box .......'.....' 3y6 

Okra, How to Plant, Pack and Sliij) 85-87 

Onion Sets, How to Grow 9- 

Onions, Grades of 38 

Onions, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 87-92 

Oranges, Grades of 39 

Oranges 138-140 

Orchard Irrigation 213 

Orchard, The Home and Commercial 125 

Orchard, Valuable Hints for 157-162 

Organization Among Fruit and Truck Grov/ers, Benefits of .251-25). 

Orpingtons, Buff 318 

Overcharges, Express, How to Collect 20 

Packages for Shipments, How to Make and Construct 27, 28 

P'ackages Used for Canned Fruits 286 

Packing, Directions for i 20-22 

Packing Fruits and Vegetables for Market 20 

Paint, Fireproof 406 

Para Grass 297, 298 

Parliamentary Law ^ 258-26') 

Parsley, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 92, 93 

Parsnips, Culture and Shipping 93> 94 

Payment for Telegrams 36 

Peaches I3i-I3t 

Peaches. Grades of 38, 39 

Peanuts 155, 156 

Pears 129-131 

Pears, Grades of 39 

Peas, Englisli. How to Plant. Grow and Ship 94-9^ 

Pecans, Grades of 39 

Pecans, Planting for Profit 150-155 

Peppers, How to Grow, Pack and Siiip 96-98 

Persimmons 136-13S 

Pickle Factories. Establishing : : 286, 287 

Pickle Recipes 291, 292 

Artichoke 291 

Beets 291 

Chow-Cliow 287 

Cucumber 288 

German 292 

Mixed 292 

Onions 291 

Peaches 291, 292 

Spanish 292 



■l.-yO General Index. 

Tomatoes and Onions 292 

Tomato 291. 292 

Pickles, Dill 287 

Pickles for Family Use 288 

Pickle, To Keep Beef, etc 408 

Plant Mulberries for Chickens 351 

Plants and Fruits, Forcing to Maturity 14. I5 

Plants, To Preserve 413 

Plums 135, 136 

Plums, Grades of y^ 

Plum Trees in Poultry Yard 346. 347 

Plymouth Rocks, Barred 313 

Plymouth Rocks, Buff 315 

Points to Remember When Laying Drain Tile 233, 234 

Poison, Bug 399 

Potatoes, Grades of 38 

Potatoes, Grades to Ship ^7 

Potatoes (Irish), How to Grov/, Cultivate, Harvest and Ship 98-103 

Potatoes (Sweet), How to Grow and Harvest 103, 104 

Poultry Dressing 353 

Poultry, Farming 307, 30'^ 

Poultry Food to Make Hens Lay 409 

Poultry, Green Food for 311, 312 

Poultry, How to Dress and Ship 341-343 

Poultry Information 361-365 

Hatching Chicks 36 t 

How to Dress and Prepare a Chicken for the Tabic 364 

How to Raise Young Chickens 362-364 

Incubation 365 

Incubators 365 

Number of Females to One Male 361 

Teaching Chicks to Roost 361 

Time for Hatching Eggs 362 

Water-Glass 361, 362 

Poultry Points- 353-355 

Poultry Raising and Egg Production 30S 

Poultry, Size of Eggs 409 

Poultry Yard, The 307 

Practical Suggestions on Drainage 232, 233 

Preparing Fruits for Drying 285, 286 

Preserving Butter 409 

Preserving Eggs 337, 33S 

Profit in Bantams 352 

Profits of Canning 273. 27 \ 

Profits of Irrigation 215 

Protection Against Frost 409 

'^nmpkins, Growing 104, 105 

Pumps. Centrifugal 208, 20<p 

P-ttv for Hotl)cd Sashes 41"^ 



General Index. 45? 

Quantity (jf Pro<luce Rt-quired to Make a Carloac'. i^ 

Radish Culture 105-107 

Rainfall, Average in the United States .396, 397 

Raising Vegetal)les and Shipping, Remarks 184, 183 

Raising Young Turkeys 330, 33 1 

Ration for a Laying Hen 350 

Rats, To Destroy 410. 411 

Remedies for Scalds and Burns 410 

Renovating Butter 410 

Reservoirs 211 

Rhode Island Reds 325-327 

Rhode Island Reds, Rose Comb 320 

Rhubarb, How to Grow and Ship 107. 108 

Ropes, To Preserve 413 

Rose Comb White Leghorns 327 

Rotation of Crops 15, 16 

Rules and Grades, Shipping 36, 37 

Rules, Brokerage 37 

Rust, To Prevent 413 

Sales F. O. B 36 

Scalds, Remedies for 410 

Seeds : 

Approximate Time to Germinate 170, 171 

Best Varieties for Southern Planting 168, 169 

Germinating 167 

Planting .^ l6s 

Required to Produce a Given Number of Plants 171 

Selecting Good Seeds 165 

Soaking Before Planting 166, 167 

Standard Weight of 17,) 

Testing 166 

To Protect Against Mice and Insects 169 

Usually Sown Upon an Acre 169. 170 

Vitality of 165, 166 

Seed Sowing 13 

Selection of Locality for a Fruit and Vegetable Garden 8 

Selection of Soils g 

Shipments. Mark Plainly 23, 24 

Shippers, Carelessness of 2.1 

Shipping Only the Best, Adv.antagc of 21, 22 

Shipping Rules and Grades 36, 37 

Shipping to Markets 22, 23 

Silver Laced Wj-andottes 314 

Single Comb Leghorns 317 

Soils, Selection of g 

Solder, Cappmg 280 

Southern Vegetable Garden 43 

Soy Beans, Feeding Value of 298 

Spinach, How to Grow, Pack and Ship no, in 



Square Rods and Feet in One Acre ». ....... , . .,. . . , .r »...,«.,.-> -i- • •,• • • 395 

Squash, How to Grow and Market '. ....,.,,. iii,; 1(2 

^tan'tj^rd Breeds of Poultr}' ■..■,.<,•»<:• ■<:,•■■.•.■ ? ■■■;i! ■ ' ■ ■.■ • • -tv ■ 'j- -■■•.. 309 

§Rwl)erries . ^.^!^^■|^v:^5^p\,^;V:?;v•|^• v^r^ v,/^ 

S.t.ra'wjj.erries, Grades of ."...'.* ....... ...*.,.. ..y. ^i^^',.,--^- ■■29, 4P 

Stumps, To Destroy ._. .,;!'....., , ^ . . . . ...,,•,. . . , 412 

S.warming, Management in ^y.,...,. f .^.387, ^8.8 

Taniiing ;,r.;,-.;,- -.v.- '-/^ •-•,;> •.:,302, ^3 

Test Age of Fowls ...../ ,.j'. .., . .,. .3,17, 318 

Tile Draining '" 210 

, ..... ■ ■' ';•■■■.■ ; >■: • 

Tiling, Cost Per Acre .•■.•••; k..: • r •.:'•. ^3i 

Time Required by Carloads to Reach Markets .....,....,..;......,......... 35 

^0 Arrest Bleeding ,:•-:•• ,•_■.•.-, ; ■ • r.- 41O 

Tobacco, How to Grow in the Southern States 114-121 

To Destroy Ants , . , . , . , 398 

To Destroy Cockroaches .■ 410 

To Destroy Rats •; . . . , . . -" • ■ -410, 4x1 

To Destroy Stumps .^j.. . .v.^,4ifJ 

To Keep Milk from Souring .'...„.. .^,'. . 414 

To Kill Bermuda or Other Grasses ,. .,-.. --j. . it? 

rj, . .••} \i .-; ;--.}!T:.T 
Tomatoes, Grades of «,. . .=.1 30 

Tomatoes, How to Grow, Pack and Ship 112-114 

To Preserve Lumber ,v>. 413 

To Preserve Plants ..,. . ^ ,> . ■■(..■.■ 413 

To Preserve Ropes '. . .,.^,.. . . . . , . > . 413 

To Prevent Rust " 413 

To Purify Honey ;_._. 413 

To Select Cow .". . '...."...*. 419, 420 

To Try Lard 416 

To Utilize Bones for Fertilizers 416 

Truck Growers' Association, Constitution and By-Laws of , .255-258 

Turkeys ..' . . .2>Z^, 332 

Turkeys and Their Nests ... .... . ... .332, 2>2)2i 

Turkeys, Mammoth Bronze 328 

Turkeys, Profitable ...'.,. 328-330 

Turkeys, Raising Young .330, 331 

Turnips or Rutabagas, How to Grow, Pack and Sliip 108-110 

United States Land Measure and Homestead Law 415 

Value of an Irrigated Acre 215-217 

Varieties of Fruits to Can . . 281 

Vegetables, Estimated Weights of .30, 31 

Vegetables, Grades of ;..,..., . . ... .'. ,37, 41 

Vegetables, Harvesting and Picking .,^.,. ,. . . ';. . .17-19 

Vegetables, How to Can "...'..,..'. .".". '278-280 

V^egetable Shipments, Boxes, Crates or Hampers to Use '. 24-26 

Vegetables, Raising and Shipping 184, 185 

Vegetables, Treatment for Diseases and Insects 193-196 

Vegetal)les, Varieties to Can , 281 , 282 

Vegetaljle Time Table (Length of Time Required to Cook Garden Vegeta.bles. . 404 



General Index. 451) 

Walks, Gravel 412 

Walnuts • 156, X57 

Water, Application to Growing Crops 211, 212 

vVatermelons, How to Grow and Ship 79-8i 

Water, Quantity Used for Irrigation 210 

Water Supply for Irrigation 206 

Wax, Grafting 406 

Weigh Without Scales, How to 418 

Well, A Cheap Driven 211 

Wells, Artesian 206, 207 

W ell Sinking 206 

When to irrigate •' • 212, 213 

White Faced Black Spanish 324 

Whitewash 407 

White Wyandottes 322, ^23 

Willow Growing, Basket 390, 391 

Windmills 207, 208 

Window Lights, Number Per Box of 50 Feet 416-418 

Wine-Making in the South 371-373 

Work for Dififerent Months in Southern Orchards and Truck Fields 171-184 

January 173, 174 

February 174^ 175 

March 175, 176 

April 176 

May 177 

June 178, 179 

Jnb' ■ . • • 179 

August 180 

Scpteml)cr l8o, l8l 

October 181, 182 

November 182, 183 

December 183, 184 

Wyandottes, Buft 321 

Wyandottes, Golden 3x9, 320 

Wyandottes, Silver Laced 314 

Wyandottes, White 322, 323 



